please use the readings to complete the assignment
ADVOCATING
j9rENGLISH
“· LEARNERS
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
A Guidefor Educators
A Joint Publication
~ ,s~tesol Diane Staehr Fenner
FOREWORD BY JOHN SEGOTA CORWIN internat;onal
“‘””””””
‘
association
Need for
Advocacy for
English Learners
Ms. Ritter, an English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher at a mid
western elementary school, has been a teacher for seven years. She
has noticed the population of her ELs rise dramatically during her tenure,
and she has also become keenly aware of her shifting role within her class
room as well as within the larger context of her school. She has gone from
being “only” a language teacher to taking on responsibilities beyond
teaching that include helping her students’ families acquire affordable
housing, translating documents for parents, providing professional devel
opment to grade-level general education teachers on using EL strategies,
and trying to persuade her principal to devote more resources to the
school’s ESL program.
Frankly, Ms. Ritter is starting to feel burned out this year, as she
senses she is fighting an uphill battle. In her eyes, her principal is not
fully on board that the school culture needs to become more accepting
of its EL population and take the extra steps necessary to ensure their
academic success as well as their emotional well-being. Ms. Ritter abso
lutely loves working with her ELs, who bring rich linguistic and cul
tural diversity to her school. However, she is not sure where she should
turn for some additional support to help her school draw upon and
realize her students’ full potential. She has just learned that another
school with a large EL population is going to be hiring an ESL teacher
and is considering applying for the position, as she knows the other
school’s principal has embraced its EL population. She is not sure what
to do.
• 5
6 • Advocating for English Learners
CONTENT OF TH IS CHAPTER
This chapter will outline the areas that provide the theoretical framework
for the book, drawing on EL demographics, research, and recent events
that support the argument that educators must consider approaching the
education of ELs from an advocacy perspective in addition to focusing on
EL education solely from an instructional stance. In order to effectively
teach ELs, all educators who work with these students must realize that
they share the responsibility to teach these students who have so much to
offer. This chapter contains multiple references to theory and research, so
please keep in mind that subsequent chapters are more focused on the
application of information you will read in this chapter.
After providing a definition of EL advocacy that will be used in this
book, I will present theory and research in such areas as the achievement
gap, teacher preparation to work with ELs, the EL deficit paradigm, and
applicable social justice theory that will situate this advocacy perspective
and allow for you to apply it throughout the book The chapter will con
clude with an examination of the new focus on advocacy for ELs high
lighted in the influential TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages) P-12 Professional Standards and in the National Board for
Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) English as a New Language
(ENL) Standards.
CALL FOR AN ADVOCACY
PERSPECTIVE ON TEACHING Els
Given the challenges of teaching ELs as well as the often unpublicized
multiple joys and rewards that come from supporting ELs to achieve in
school and beyond, there is a need to focus on EL education from a new
perspective. There is a growing number of methods and resources avail
able for teaching ELs (e.g., sheltered instruction observation protocol or
SIOP, specially designed academic instruction in English or SDAIE, and
various software products), but none of these resources focuses on provid
ing an equitable education for them from an advocacy perspective.
Specifically, the often unexplored concept of advocacy for ELs lies at
the heart of teachers’ expectations for ELs, their interactions with these
shtdents, and their ability to support their students’ success through col
laboration with colleagues, administrators, and the community as a whole.
In short, a content area or general education teacher can be trained on
many of the academic strategies necessary for ELs to achieve (e.g., scaf
folding content instruction, creating appropriate formative assessments,
l11l\.1
Need for Advocacy for English Learners 9 7
teaching lartguage and content simultaneously). However, if that teacher
does not first buy in to the idea that ELs are capable of achieving with
some extra support, and if that teacher doesn’t share a sense of responsibil
ity for teaching ELs so that they can achieve, that teacher will be less likely
to successfully implement the instructional strategies that are known to be
effective.
In order to be effective advocates for ELs, educators1 must be aware of
the areas in which ELs require advocacy efforts and the reasons these
efforts are needed. Educators will also benefit from explicit instruction,
ideally at both the preservice and inservice levels, in advocacy tools in
order to serve as a voice for their EL students who might not yet be able to
advocate for themselves.
Defining Advocacy
The majority of teacher education courses that prepare general educa
tion and content area teachers do not include instruction on teaching ELs
(Ballantyne, Sanderman, & Levy, 2008), much less on how to advocate for
ELs’ equitable education. We can extrapolate from that research base that
there is not one common definition of what it means to advocate for ELs
so that they can receive an education that is equitable when compared to
their non-EL peers2. This book will begin by providing a working defini
tion of advocacy for ELs that will ground the rest of the book’s contents
and applications.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines an advocate as “a person who
publicly supports or recommends a particular cause or policy” or “a per
son who puts a case on someone else’s behalf.” The dictionary further
describes advocate as the Scottish and South American term used in place
of the terms barrister or attorney. The term advocate echoes its cognates in
Romance languages-abogado (Spanish), advogado (Portuguese), avocet
(French)-meaning attorney, or representative of others who cannot effec
tively represent themselves. The notion of serving as someone’s attorney
involves taking actions on that person’s behalf (Athanases & de Oliveria,
2008). Similarly, Dubetz and de Jong (2011) note that advocacy emphasizes
acting on behalf of others.
The definition of advocacy for ELs I will use in this book draws upon
both definitions and is based on acting on behalf of ELs both inside and
1. I will refer to teachers and administrators collectively as educators.
2. The term non-EL peers refers to those students who are either native English speakers or
who do not qualify for ESL services due to their high level of English language proficiency.
However, non-EL students may still speak or be exposed to a language in addition to
English in their homes.
B 9 Advocating for English Learners
outside the classroom. I define advocacy for ELs as working for ELs’ equi
table and excellent education by taking appropriate actions on their behalf.
To me, advocacy fo·r ELs means stepping in and providing a voice for those
students-and their families-who have not yet developed their own
strong voice in their education. Advocacy for ELs also means knowing
about each of my EL students’ and families’ backgrounds to be able to
know which appropriate action I need to take on each person’s behalf. It is
not a one-size-fits-all approach, as each EL and his or her family differs
from the next in terms of which kinds of advocacy are needed for them.
Scaffolded Advocacy
The concept of advocacy that will be used in this book is further influ
enced by the concept of scaffolding. Scaffolding is an instructional strategy
that provides ELs an appropriate level of support as they access content
material in a language in which they are developing proficiency. One of
the basic principles of scaffolding instruction for ELs is that the teacher
must know his or her ELs’ backgrounds, including their linguistic, cul
tural, and socioemotional strengths as well as areas of need in order to
determine which scaffolds to use and also when to remove the scaffolds.
Because no two ELs are exactly the same, the types and amounts of scaf
folding used for one EL (e.g., visuals, graphic organizers, first language
support) will be different from the types and amounts of scaffolding used
for another EL with a different background. In addition, teachers who are
familiar with scaffolding for ELs also know that scaffolding is not meant
to be a permanent support to ELs. By their very nature, scaffolds should
be gradually removed as ELs’ levels of English language proficiency (ELP)
increase. In this way, the students eventually do not require scaffolded
instruction, as they have developed enough ELP to access content and
achieve without scaffolding alongside their non-EL peers. It is our goal as
teachers of ELs to help get our students to a place where they no longer
require our scaffolding.
Much like scaffolded instruction, the concept of advocacy for ELs that
will be used in this book is one of scaffolded advocacy. Educators tend to
advocate more actively for ELs who fit into one or more of the categories
below, although the list is by no means exhaustive:
• Are at lower levels of ELP
• Are newly arrived to the United States
• Are from lower socioeconomic groups in the United States
• Attend schools in which there are low rates of EL achievement and/
or graduation
i ‘
‘
Need for Advocacy for English Learners ti 9
• Are from families who are most unfamiliar with their children’s
educational rights and community resources in the United States
• Come from families whose levels of ELP are at the lower end
• Belong to families who have limited or interrupted educational
backgrounds
• Have undergone trauma
It is known that ELs will require fewer instructional scaffolds to access
challenging content as their ELP levels increase. Similarly, educators antic
ipate that ELs will require fewer advocacy scaffolds in order to obtain an
education that is equitable with that of their non-EL peers as they and/or
their families acquire more English, become more familiar with the U.S.
educational system, and develop their own voices as advocates for them
selves. It is educators’ task to help connect them with available resources
and help them use these resources in order to achieve in the U.S. context.
In short, educators’ goal is for ELs and their families to be able to advocate
for themselves. Educators therefore need to share the responsibility for
teaching ELs as their voices grow stron
“.: :-
/How aGl ybu~d~fi~J h;dVoc~cyTor Els? Are’
:yoyr:advi:icacy:et(drt~ $tclticor are they
.· ~y~am,k1 ½1~¥ :ii fijifs:q?; ••
ger by providing temporary advocacy
scaffolds to help ELs and their families
become their own advocates in the U.S.
educational arena.
EL DEMOGRAPHICS
Now that the concept of advocacy has been established as it will be used
in this book, attention will shift to several key changes that have created
the need for educators to develop their advocacy efforts around ELs. First,
the number of ELs in P-12 classrooms who are learning English continues
to grow. More than 10% of the P-12 population across the United States is
composed of English learners (National Clearinghouse for English Lan
guage Acquisition, NCELA, 2011). ELs constitute a growing presence
across the United States. Six states experienced more than 200% growth in
their preK-12 EL populations between the 1999-2000 and 2009-2010
school years. See Figure 1.1 for a repre
sentation of this growth. In addition, the
EL school-age population has grown
more than 63% since the 1994-1995
school year, while the non-EL school-age
population has only increased slightly
more than 4% (NCELA, 2011).
Change
Percent Change In
Number ol EL
Students From
1999/2000–2009/2010
Growth
Northern o
Mariana / ~ ~,~\
Islands tia4
Ill 50%-99%
Marshalilslands fll 0%–49%
~uam
Decrease{j ~ 6″‘ ·~ -= … ~ ~-9 lo,,_ •
Palau .,tJ C, ti .,:0 □ 1%– ~.,
of Micronesia American Samoa
<:cO -=
Puerto Rico Vir~ Islands
Source: NCELA, 2011.
1 O e Advocating for English Learners
EL ACHIEVEMENT GAP AND UNDERLYING REASONS
In addition to the sheer numbers of ELs that cannot be ignored, another
area that points to the need for advocacy for ELs is the achievement gap
between ELs and students who are considered to be non-ELs. Non-ELs are
either native English speakers or former ELs who have exited from lan
guage support programs or placed out of them upon initial assessment of
their English language proficiency.
Researchers acknowledge that EL students’ achievement scores are
lower than those of non-EL students (Abedi, 2002; Fry, 2008). There is also
a gap between high school completion rates as well as attainment of post
secondary degrees by ELs versus non-ELs (Kao & Thompson, 2003;
National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2005; Reardon &
Galindo, 2009). While many theories exist to explain this achievement
gap, five will be highlighted in this chapter: socioeconomic status, teacher
preparation to work with ELs, administrator preparation to work with
ELs, ELs’ access to academic English, and EL families’ involvement in
their children’s education. There is some
overlap of categories, and knowing
where the categories overlap is impor
tant when considering how to improve
ELs’ achievement through the lens of
advocacy.
Need for Advocacy for English Learners • 1
1
Socioeconomic Status
One reason that has bearing on the achievement gap between ELs and
non-ELs is socioeconomic; that is, ELs frequently live in poverty. ELs often
attend schools that serve students living in poverty, as defined by eligibility
for free and reduced-price lunch (Fry, 2008). They tend to attend public
schools that have low standardized test scores, high student/teacher ratios,
and high student .enrollments. Other researchers have determined that
nearly 60% of adolescent ELs qualify for free or reduced-price lunch
(Ballantyne et al., 2008). Wilde (2010) found that ELs who live in poverty
score worse in math skills and reading achievement than non-ELs. When
ELs are not isolated in low-performing schools, their gap in test score
results is considerably narrower (Fry,
2008; Wilde, 2010). While there is a differ
ence in achievement among ELs living in
poverty and those who do not live in
poverty, educators cannot view poverty
as an excuse not to educate ELs.
Access to Academic English
Another reason to explain the achievement gap between ELs and non
ELs is the role academic language plays. ELs’ ability to access the content
they must learn in order to be successful in school and beyond is predi
cated upon their ability to acquire and use complex academic language.
All teachers of ELs, including content area teachers and ESL teachers, face
the challenge of teaching academic language and challenging content
simultaneously to ELs-quite often without sufficient resources to do so.
While several definitions of academic language exist today, many have
defined academic language as being distinguished from nonacademic lan
guage on several cross-cutting levels: lexical/vocabulary, grammatical/
syntactical, and discourse/organizational (Bailey, 2010; Gottlieb, Katz, &
Emst-Slavit, 2009; Scarcella, 2003, 2008).
Teacher Preparation to Work With Els
With the large number of ELs enrolled in schools across the nation
coupled with the increase in the number of ELs far outpacing the
growth in numbers of non-ELs, one might expect that all teachers
would be fully trained in working with ELs. However, only 20 states
require that all teachers have training in working with ELs. Further
more, the breadth, depth, and quality of this training varies widely
(Ballantyne et al., 2008). In addition, certification requirements for ESL
i I’
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, I
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, I
12 8 Advocating for English Learners
teachers vary by state (Ballantyne et al., 2008; Education Week, 2009).
The growing, linguistically and culturally diverse student population
in K-12 U.S. schools is taught by a mostly monolingual English-speak
ing teaching staff (de Jong & Harper, 2008). In sum, the majority of
teachers have not been fully prepared to effectively teach English
learners.
To begin to address the need to prepare teachers for diverse learners,
in recent years, multicultural education and diversity issues have been
added to the curriculum of preservice and inservice teacher education
programs in many U.S. universities (O’Neal, Ringler, & Rodriguez, 2008).
Even if teacher education programs include a focus on multicultural edu
cation, de Jong and Harper (2008) posit that changes in individuals’ atti
tudes and values will not be sufficient to prepare all teachers for the
growing linguistically and culturally diverse student population.
Due to this unevenness in teacher education policies, it cannot be
assumed that content area teachers 3 and ESL teachers share a uniform
degree of knowledge about how to effectively teach ELs. In general, due
to their differing levels of teacher preparation, many content area teach
ers as well as some ESL teachers are not fully equipped with the skills
to be able to effectively educate ELs with multifaceted backgrounds,
strengths, and challenges (Staehr Fenner & Kuhlman, 2012). This lack of
uniformity in the preparation of teachers has created a national patch
work approach to teacher credentialing that does not serve the best
interests of the growing population of ELs, nor the field of ESL and
bilingual education.
Despite the necessity for teachers to teach content and language simul
taneously so that ELs can achieve, most ELs spend the majority of their
days with content area teachers who are likely not trained in working with
them (Ballantyne et al., 2008). This lack of training can affect the learning
of ELs. Most teachers, both ESL and content area, who work with ELs
typically receive a low percentage of inservice professional development
time devoted to how to instruct these students (Zehler et al., 2003). With
the growing numbers of ELs in U.S.
schools today coupled with the ever
persistent achievement gap between ELs
and non-ELs, effective professional
development of teachers who work with
ELs should be a top priority for schools,
districts, and states.
3. Content area teachers are defined as teachers who teach subjects other than ESL (e.g.,
science, mathematics, music, English language arts, etc.).
Need for Advocacy for English Learners • 13
Administrator Preparation to Work With Els
In addition, school administrators also often find themselves unpre
pared to lead their teachers to teach ELs. The principal’s role is critical in
strengthening a positive school culture, which includes the values, beliefs,
and norms that characterize the school (Deal & Peterson, 2009). In strength
ening a school culture that supports high achievement for all ELs, shared
beliefs at the school level include the benefits of multilingualism, an appre
ciation of ELs’ culture, and the need to overcome stereotypes and a deficit
paradigm. The principal influences this culture in serving as a key spokes
person for the school, as an evaluator of practices, and as a model of com
mitment to student success (Alford & Nino, 2011).
Lack of EL Parents’ Voice in Their Children’s Education
Another frequently cited reason to explain ELs’ tendency to achieve at
levels lower than those of non-ELs is the general lack of EL parental
involvement in their children’s education. Research shows that parental
involvement positively affects student achievement (Ferguson, 2008).
However, parents of ELs tend to participate in their children’s education
less than parents of non-ELs.4
Some barriers that tend to inhibit EL parental and familial involvement
include English language proficiency of families, parents’ educational level,
differences between school culture and parents’ home culture, and logisti
cal challenges such as securing childcare, finding transportation, and tak
ing time off from work (Arias & Morillo
Campbell, 2008; Tinkler, 2002). In fact,
although EL parents may place a high
value on education, they might find it
very difficult to relate to their children’s
U.S. school experience or understand how to help their children succeed in
the U.S. school environment and continue on to post-secondary education
(Suarez-Orozco, Suarez-Orozco, & Doucet, 2004).
UNRAVELING THE DEFICIT PARADIGM OF ELS
These factors that explain the EL/non-EL achievement gap point to a
deficit paradigm in which ELs are viewed primarily for their insufficient
level of English proficiency and lack of familiarity with U.S. culture. How-
4. The terms families and parents are used here interchangeably, as ELs may live with par
ents, they may live with extended families, or they may live with both parents and
extended families. Chapter 6 explores family involvement in their children’s education.
i’I’;
‘
i
i I·.
I::,
Miami-Dade County Public Schools (Florida) was
recognized in 2012 with the Broad Prize for
showing a great level of academic performance
and improvement while reducing achievement
gaps among poor and minority students. Miami
Dade is the fourth largest school district in the
United States, and its student population is
65.9% Latino. Twenty-one percent of the dis
trict’s students are Els, and 74% of the total
student population is eligible for free and
reduced-priced school lunch. One effort that led
to the district making such gains among achieve
ment results is that district leaders have worked
to create a districtwide culture focused on achiev
ing results. Alberto Carvalho, the district superin
tendent and an English learner himself, is widely
regarded as being an advocate for the district’s
English learners.
Language Diversity as a Resource
ever, dedicated educators of
ELs know that ELs bring often
untapped strengths and have
much to offer the educational
system in the United States. If
their educators and administra
tors provide them an equitable
education based on a culturally
and linguistically appropriate
framework with high but
attainable expectations and col
laboration among various
stakeholders, ELs can achieve.
Below, two overarching exam
ples of strengths that ELs bring
to the educational arena are
provided to question the idea
that ELs merely present chal
lenges to educators.
Nieto (2001) believes there is a strong need to view language diversity as
a resource rather than a deficit, recognize the role that language discrimina
tion has played in U.S. history, recognize the benefits of linguistic diversity
for all students, understand the role that native language development plays
in school achievement, and make the education of language minority stu
dents the responsibility of all teachers. She conceptualizes students as cultur
ally, linguistically, and ability diverse (CLAD) when they speak a language
other than English but don’t necessarily qualify for ESL programs. Further,
CLAD learning can be positively impacted by school policies and practices
that value students’ identities and are part of systemic educational reform
(Nieto, 2007). While certain practices-such as first language instruction,
eliminating tracking, or a culturally responsive pedagogy-<::an significantly
improve CLAD student learning, in isolation these practices do not reflect the
complexity of student learning. School policies and practices may perpetuate
the structural inequalities that exist in society.
Cultural Differences as a Strength
Some see cultural differences as a root cause of the EL/non-EL
achievement gap. A discontinuity exists between the culture of the schools
and the home culture of culturally and linguistically diverse students, yet
these students possess distinct, often unrecognized funds of knowledge
Need for Advocacy for English Learners e 15
(or historically accumulated bodies of knowledge and skills) that many
teachers do not know exist (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez, 1992; Velez
Ibanez & Greenberg, 1992). Moll et al. (1992) argue that in order to success
fully educate diverse populations, including ELs, teachers’ consciousness
first needs to be raised so that they recognize that students come to school
in possession of funds of knowledge. In addition, teachers must also incor
porate students’ funds of knowledge into classroom instruction in order to
build on the strengths and knowledge diverse students bring with them.
Recently,. researchers and educators have challenged this deficit view of
culturally and linguistically diverse families and discovered diverse families.
possess a vast range of cognitive resources, skills, and knowledge and pro
vide their children with a variety of learning opportunities and experiences.
They argue that using students’ funds of knowledge as a base for classroom
discussions bridges the school and household learning and ultimately helps
students make sense of abstract, theoreti
cal concepts taught in schools (Dwordin,
2006; Hensley, 2005; Moje et al., 2004).
The polar opposite of the EL deficit
model is recognizing and honoring the
cultural capital and funds of knowledge
that each student brings to the class
room. The term cultural capital was made popular by French sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1973) and is understood to be the
cultural background, knowledge, dispositions, and skills that are passed
down from one generation to another.
For example, consider Amadou, a recently arrived sixth grade Haitian
student who enters a classroom with very limited English language skills.
It would be quite easy to view him in terms of what he doesn’t appear to
possess, such as English reading skills, mathematics skills, appropriate
classroom behavior, and so on. What Amadou does bring to his education
is most likely an incredible sense of self-reliance, survival skills, a strong
work ethic, and a strong sense of community. Acknowledging Amadou’s
strengths and building from them is a huge step toward supporting his
achievement, whereas “to deny students their own knowledge is to disem
power them,” (Delpit, 1995~ p. 33).
SHARING RESPONSIBILITY TO
TEACH ENGLISH LEARNERS
Fortunately, the field of ESL education is now better positioned to be able
to accurately articulate some research-based criteria that influence teach
ers’ ability to effectively teach ELs. For instance, a synthesis of studies
16 • Advocating for English Learners
(Gandara, Maxwell-Jolly, & Driscoll, 2005) reports that the most successful
teachers of ELs have pedagogical and cultural knowledge and skills,
including the ability to communicate effectively with ELs and include
their families in their children’s education. In short, the greater a teacher’s
preparation for working with ELs, the more professionally competentthat
teacher feels to teach them and the more responsibility that teacher takes
on for ELs’ achievement.
In order to provide effective professional development for those
who teach ELs, teacher educators must first have an understanding of
the role that content area and ESL/bilingual teachers have in teaching
ELs within a systems approach. In this approach, three components
(teachers, standards, and assessment) constantly interact and influence
each other as parts of an inseparable system, forming a triangle of inter
action. For ELs to learn content and language simultaneously, all three
components must be equally developed-as educators, we have to share
the responsibility to make sure that all three components are developed
when it comes to ELs. If one component is neglected, the other two will
not fully develop (Staehr Fenner & Kuhlman, 2012). Figure 1.2 repre
sents the multifaceted, triangulated approach to teaching ELs that high
lights the relationship between content standards, English language
proficiency (ELP)/English language development (ELD) standards,
Source: Staehr Fenner & Segota, 2012.
………….. ;.;, h~!JMek ….
· SL:teacherstcollapoJate Mi:sffpp
1cs’ iucr~ss?’.W~~t kJr:i~i Need for Advocacy for English Learners Cl 1 7
content assessments, and ELP/ELD assessments. Educators first need fo For ELs to be instructed effectively, content area and ESL teachers must Advocacy for Els as Social Justice
In order to increase awareness of advocacy for ELs, it is also beneficial 18 • Advocating for English Learners
Components of Social Justice as They Relate to Advocacy for Els
This first stage in the social justice transformation is signified by indi I I I
I I.
r [ i social justice education as fundamentally about power, including who has Equally important to consider is what Giroux (1983, 1988) refers to as the schools serve to empower our ELs to fulfill 1·. 1·1,!
Ili 1,·:
I[l”i ‘ll’j’ 1(1: 1
;ii ,,1,
Ii I I! I I Need for Advocacy for English Learners • 19
CULTURE AS SOCIAL Culture is a key component in social justice education as well as in One final tension is the contradiction between the seriousness of social Current EL Advocacy Efforts Underway
There are some movements that have begun to address educators’ 1 Ii·, J.·. , built advocacy into their professional standards, these organizations’ PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
The TESOL International Association’s P-12 Professional Teaching Stan The TESOL P-12 Professional Standards
The TESOL standards represent what preservice ESL teaching candi TESOL’ s eleven professional standards are organized around five The NBPTS ENL Standards
More than 1,300 teachers are currently nationally board certified in Need for Advocacy for English Learners f.t 21
of the English Language; Knowledge of English Language Acquisition; Focus on Advocacy in the TESOL and NBPTS Professional Standards
Both the TESOL and the NBPTS professional standards contain a height Advocacy in the TESOL Professional Standards
TESOL’s Professional Development, Partnership, and Advocacy stan • Advocate for ELLs and their families, including full access to school • Serve as advocates and ESOL resources to support ELLs and their • Provide ELLs and their families with information, support, and • Take leadership roles on instructional teams advocating for appro • Help create empowering circumstances and environments for ELLs • Take leadership roles with community members and policymakers 5. TESOL uses the term English language learner (ELL) in its P-12 Professional Teaching i I I 22 • Advocating for English Learners
The TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching Standards include the advo Advocacy in the NBPTS ENL Standards
Advocacy is a theme that plays two roles in the NBPTS ENL standards. Accomplished teachers of English language learners contribute to During the revision process of the NBPTS standards, advocacy became The introduction to the NBPTS ENL standards helps define the context Accomplished teachers accept their ethical responsibility to advo Standard IX’ s pertinent text is provided below:
Accomplished teachers challenge misconceptions about English Need for Advocacy for English Learners • 23
ensure that valid assessments, placements, and referral procedures They advocate for their students’ admission to special programs, such One Ex.ample of a Promising Practice in EL Accomplished teachers Candidates read about inequities that warrant Since all teachers share responsibility for ensuring ELs’ achievement, I 1 11 • I 1 ·
through advocacy in order to truly serve and support each EL student. In ·1 Abedi, J. (2002). Standardized achievement tests and English language learners: Alford, B. J., & Nifio, M. C. (2011). Leading academic achievement for English language Arias, M. B., & Morillo-Campbell, M. (2008). Promoting ELL parental involvement: Athanases, S. Z., & de Oliveria, L. C. (2008). Advocacy for equity in classrooms Bailey, A. L. (2010). Implications for assessment and instruction. In M. Schatz & Ballantyne, K. G., Sanderman, AR., & Levy, J. (2008). Educating English language Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.C. (1973). Cultural reproduction and social reproduc Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Darling-Hammond, L. (2002). Learning to teach for social justice. In L. Darling de Jong, E., & Harper, C. (2008). ESL is good teaching “plus”: Preparing standard Deal, T. E., & Peterson, K. D. (2009). Shaping school culture (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York, Dubetz, N. E., & de Jong, E. J. (2011). Teacher advocacy in bilingual programs. Dwordin, J. (2006). The Family Stories Project: Using funds of knowledge for Education Week. (2009). Quality counts: Portrait of a population, 28(17). Bethesda, www.edweek Need for Advocacy for English Learners e 25
Ferguson, C. (2008). The school-family connection: Looking at the larger picture. Freire, P. (1993). Education for critical consciousness. New York, NY: Continuum. MA: Bergin & Garvey. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved from http:/ /www.pewhis Gandara, P., Maxwell-Jolly, J., & Driscoll, A. (2005). Listening to teachers of English Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Giroux, H. A. (1983). Theory and resistance in education. South Hadley, MA: Bergin Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Gottlieb, M., Katz, A., & Ernst-Slavit, G. (2009). Paper to practice: Using the Hensley, M. (2005). Empowering parents of multicultural backgrounds. In hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New Kao, G., & Thompson, J. S. (2003). Racial and ethnic stratification in education Maje, E. B, Mclntosh-Ciechanowski, K., Kramer, K., Ellis, L., Carrillo, R., & Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, 0., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). (2010). English as a National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. (2005). Income of U.S. The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA). (2011). Nieto, S. (2001). We speak in many tongues. In C. Diaz (Ed.), Multicultural educa www.highereducation.org/reports/pa_decline/pa_dec1ine #search;%22 https://annurev.soc.29 https://fromhttp://www.cftl.org/documents/2005/listen https://panic.org www.pewhis 26 Iii Advocating for English Learners
Nieto, S. (2006, Spring). Teaching as political work- Learning from courageous and car Nieto, S. (2007). School reform and student learning. In J. Banks & C. Banks (Eds.), O’Neal, D., Ringler, D. D., & Rodriguez, D. (2008). Teachers’ perceptions of their Reardon, S. E., & Galindo, C. (2009). The Hispanic-White achievement gap in Scarcella, R. (2003). Academic English: A conceptual framework (Tech. Rep. No. 2003-1 ). Scarcella, R. (2008, August). Defining academic English. Webinar presented for the Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (2009). Making choices for multicultural education: Five Staehr Fenner, D., & Kuhlman, N. (2012). Preparing effective teachers of English lan Staehr Fenner, D., & Segota, J. (2012). Standards that impact English language learn Suarez-Orozco, C., Suarez-Orozco, M., & Doucet, F. (2004) The academic engage Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). (2010). TESOL/ Tinkler, B. (2002). A review of literature on Hispanic/Latino parent involvement in K-12 Velez-Ibanez, C., & Greenberg, J. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of Wilde, J. (2010, May). Comparing results ofthe NAEP long-term trend assessment: ELLs, Zehler, A. M., Fleischman, H. L., Hopstock, P. J., Stephenson, T. G., Pendzick, M. L., www.ncela.gwu.edu/files/uploads/16 www.huildassest.org/products/latinopa www.tesol https://colorado.org www.colorin www.ncela.gwu.edu/webinars www.ruraleducator.net comp
Fenner 1
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• I
‘ .. r;;”f -· ,…….. : . CHAPTER 2
The First Step Toward Social Justice: Lavette Coney Social Equity Work as a Lifestyle Cho ice
A one, but I didn’t know how to fix it. In middle school, I realized that I wanted to
solve the disease of racism. My sense of social responsibility was evident early on.
As a person of color, I have had a long and varied history regarding social equity. The
importance of social justice has not evolved over my lifetime, but the ways in which
I access it have. Recognizing my part in social responsibility has occurred by default
because of my economic, gender, and ethnic makeup. Growing up in Boston, I didn’t
have the luxury of ignoring issues of equity. As an adult, I feel even stronger about the
commitment I made to my teenage self to fight for social justice. Therefore, using my
position of limited power, I do my best to dismantle the main cause of the inequalities
that exist in U.S. society, or what I have researched to be the underlying factor for
a great many of them: racism. Pondering and agonizing over this moral and social
dilemma of racism has been my life’s work. It continues to be the biggest unresolved
social issue in our society. There are those who say, “Why does everything have to be
about race?” My reply is, “Because it is.” Race is a social construct that affects every
one and everything we do, including the individuals in our field. Thus, the importance
of social responsibility in the field of TESOL, the field in which I have been teaching
for the past 20 years, weighs heavily upon me. Within the field of TESOL, internalized
racism of individual teachers and racism with our institutions remains an issue and are teaching practices are informed by our personal beliefs, perceptions, and life experi
ences, yet they are often overlooked when we train to teach English. Thus, providing
teachers, instructors, and facilitators of English with the tools to critically reflect on
race and power is paramount.
11 THI
Racism in its simplest
Critical race theory reject
Tatum (1997) even attribt
institutionalized at its mo
from interpersonal racisrr
The National Associat
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
recognize that it is everyone’s responsibility to equitably educate ELs,
and all types of teachers need to collaborate so they can capitalize on
each other’s strengths in terms of supporting ELs’ achievement.
have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to work with these students.
They must have a solid base of knowledge of the content but they must also
be able to apply that knowledge in the classroom. Furthermore, all teachers
must have a disposition that embodies their desire to work with ELs to sup
port them as they achieve, or a sense of responsibility to ensure their ELs’
academic success. Teachers must also design their instruction for ELs
around high-quality content as well as ELP /ELD standards that outline the
content students are responsible for. In addition, teachers must determine
the academic language students need to acquire at each stage of English
language proficiency/development so
that students can access that content.
Teachers’ needs and levels of preparation
must form the central piece of this rela
tionship so that ELs can achieve in school
and beyond.
to take a look at how social justice can inform advocacy for ELs. Social
justice education grew out of social reconstructionism, which speaks to the
need to ask social questions in an effort to create a more just and demo
cratic society. Similar to social reconstructionists, critical theorists such as
Paulo Freire (1985, 1993) conceptualized education as a means for struc
tural and social change and a way in which the oppressed could overcome
oppression. There are currently a variety of names for a model of educa
tion that seeks to transform society and instill in students greater appreci
ate for difference and a sense of agency to work against injustice and
inequity. While there are some differences in what educators using various
methods advocate, the basic assumptions and desired outcomes are fun
damentally similar in scope. Social justice education views two compo
nents as taking place simultaneously-individuals changing and working
to change society, which in turn fosters greater individual change (Sleeter
& Grant, 2009). Social justice can inform educators’ dialogues about the
need to advocate for ELs by raising awareness of how educators can help
change the school climate for the better for ELs and support ELs and their
families to be able to advocate for themselves.
viduals thinking critically about themselves in relation to their political
circumstances. Freire (1985) refers to this process as conscientizaco or con
cientization, stating, “It is as conscious beings that men are not only in the
world but with the world, together with other men” (p. 68). Freire
explains that only once individuals become open in this way, able to
view the events of the world more objectively, can they begin to make
change. With these new eyes, individuals are more open to hearing what
members of oppressed groups have to share, are more reflective about
oppressive practices and structures, and are more motivated to work for
change. It is at this point that such educators are ripe for discussions
concerning the political nature of education and how knowledge is con
structed. This book will attempt to help raise educators’ awareness about
current inequities in ELs’ education and how these inequities can be
overcome.
I
I
I
I
I ·’ Nieto (2006) argues that teaching is political work. She describes
the power to make decisions and who benefits from those decisions. She
also describes social justice as being a democratic project, because it aims
to promote inclusiveness and fairness. Nieto also identifies key character
istics of teachers who are making a positive difference in the lives of mar
ginalized students. She describes these qualities as a sense of mission;
solidarity with and empathy for their students; courage to challenge
mainstream knowledge; improvisation; and a passion for social justice.
Darling-Hammond (2002) believes that supporting all students, including
ELs, to be readers and writers in the context of general education class
rooms is a matter of social justice. These tenets of social justice certainly
apply to the definition of EL advocacy proposed and operationalized
throughout this book.
language of possibility. Just as schools have the potential to perpetuate struc
tural inequity, they also have the potential to empower students and support
personal transformation; Such a vision includes an educational process by
which learning is relevant, critical, and transformative. hooks (1994) describes
the classroom as “the most radical space of possibility” (p. 12). Typical rea
sons ELs’ families immigrate to the United States include wanting a better
education for their children. It is educators’ responsibility to ensure that our
their families’ desires and make their fam
ilies’ sacrifices in the United States worth it
in terms of their children’s education.
i
I 11111′,
11’11,
i
1;
I I
i’I
I
I
I
i
I
JUSTICE AND ADVOCACY COMPONENT
advocating for ELs in terms of recognizing the role of culture in teaching
and learning, using culture as a basis for student learning, viewing stu
dents through a lens of cultural capital, and connecting classrooms and
schools to families and the community. The critical first step toward
including culture in a social justice education and advocacy framework
is the recognition of not only the importance of culture but also the
understanding that everyone has a culture, and that culture shapes who
we are as educators. Often, White teachers must first begin to see them
selves as cultural beings and recognize the role that culture plays in
their own lives before they can develop recognition of their ELs’ cul
tures. It can be quite a journey to the point in which educators view
cultural diversity as a strength and an academic resource for all students
(Gay, 2000).
justice and beneficial nature that creativity and humor can have in advo
cating for ELs. When challenged by the weight of injustice and charged
with the task of societal transformation, it is easy for educators to feel
overwhelmed, just like Ms. Ritter. However, some of the most inspirational
teachers radiate a sense of possibility and a positive outlook. Many ESL
teachers share that their ELs describe the ESL classroom as the first place
in which their strengths seem appreciated and they sense that they are safe
to share their feelings, lowering their affective filter. Cummins (2000)
writes that the classroom needs to be hopeful, joyful, kind, and visionary.
“The ways we organize classroom life should seek to make children feel
significant and cared about-by the
teacher and by each other. Unless stu
dents feel emotionally and physically
safe, they won’t share real thoughts and
feelings” (p. 262).
awareness of advocacy as well as their ability to advocate for ELs as
important elements teachers must possess to effectively teach them. This
section of the chapter will focus on recent efforts by TESOL International
Association and the NBPTS to prominently place advocacy for ELs on the
educational landscape. Since these influential professional bodies have
;11 I· 20 • Advocating for English Learners
endorsement of advocacy supports the importance of advocacy for ELs.
dards and the NBPTS English as New Language Standards were revised
in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Given recent changes in the context of edu
cation for ELs that has been heavily influenced by assessment and account
ability, advocacy is a theme that permeates both sets of the newly revised
sets of professional standards for teachers.
dates earning their initial licensure in ESL should know and be able to do
in order to effectively teach ELs. The TESOL standards are used for recog
nition by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation
(CAEP)-formerly known as National Council for the Accreditation of
Teacher Education (NCATE)-as well as by institutions of higher educa
tion as they create and revise ESL teacher preparation programs. They are
also used to form a framework for schools’ and districts’ professional
development for general education as well as for ESL/bilingual inservice
teachers (Staehr Fenner & Kuhlman, 2012).
overlapping domains: Language, Culture, Instruction, Assessment, and
Professionalism. The domains of Language and Culture form the content
knowledge that ESL teachers need to know in order to apply them to
Instruction and Assessment. The fifth domain, Professionalism, is at the
core of the standards; it drives who effective ESL teachers are and what
they can do. It is in this fifth domain, Professionalism, where advocacy
plays an important role through Standard Sb: Professional Development,
Partnership, and Advocacy.
English as a New Language using the NBPTS ENL Standards as a frame
work for national board certification. The NBPTS standards contain the
following nine standards: Knowledge of Students; Knowledge of Culture
and Diversity; Home, School, and Community Connections; Knowledge
Instructional Practice; Assessment; Teacher as Leamer; and Professional
Leadership and Advocacy.
ened focus on teachers’ responsibilities to advocate for their ELs. Although
these standards are intended for specialists who work with ELs such as ESL
teachers, the content of the standards can extend to all educators, including
content area teachers as well as administrators. Below, the focus turns to
examining how advocacy plays a role in each of these sets of standards.
dard reads, “Candidates take advantage of professional growth opportu
nities and demonstrate the ability to build partnerships with colleagues
and students’ families, serve as community resources, and advocate for
ELLs”5 (TESOL, 2010, p. 71). Some performance indicators TESOL has
defined to measure the degree to which preservice ESL licensure candi
dates meet this standard include the following (TESOL, 2010):
resources and technology and appropriate instruction for students
with special needs or giftedness. (p. 73)
families as families make decisions in the schools and community.
(p. 73)
assistance as they advocate together for the students and their
families. (p. 74)
priate instructional services for ELLs who may have special needs or
giftedness. (p. 74)
and their families. (p. 74)
with respect to issues affecting ELLs. (p. 74)
Standards. Several other organizations use the term ELL as well.
cacy standard to operationalize some of the most important facets of being
an effective teacher of ELs. Staehr Fenner and Kuhlman (2012) recommend
one or more teacher preparation courses and inservice professional devel
opment should contain a focus on how to access and share advocacy infor
mation with educators.
It stands alone as NBPTS Standard IX, Professional Leadership and Advo
cacy, and also serves as a thread that weaves throughout several of the
other NBPTS ENL standards. Standard IX states,
the professional learning of their colleagues and the advancement
of knowledge in their field in order to advocate for their students.
(NBPTS, 2010, p. 20)
its own standard to draw attention to the changing role of educating ELs
during a time of increased collaboration among educators as well as a
higher level of accountability surrounding the education of ELs.
for the importance of advocating for ELs, stating,
cate for their students’ success in order to give both the students
and their families a voice they may not have yet acquired them
selves. Accomplished teachers’ advocacy at the school, district,
state, and even national levels extends beyond their students’
academic needs to the unique p~rsonal needs of their students.
Accomplished teachers understand that everyone in the school
shares the responsibility for the success of all students, and they
collaborate with other stakeholders to ensure that success for
English language learners. (NBPTS, 2010, p. 14)
language learners, arbitrary requirements, inappropriate curricular
and assessment assumptions, cultural misunderstandings, and
other factors that may limit their students’ achievement. Teachers
occur so that English language learners receive appropriate and
equitable services. (NBPTS, 2010, p. 92)
as those for gifted and talented students, and they argue against inappro
priate placements in compensatory or remedial programs. Teachers recom
mend, and, when possible, help establish, new programs, courses, and
curricula to build on the knowl-
edge, skills, and interests that
ELs bring to school, addressing
students’ individual needs and
fostering a positive self-image
for each one. Teachers also
advocate for equal access to
extracurricular activities and
enrichment programs:
Advocacy: One example of including advocacy
at the preservice education level is in the English
Language Development course at Purdue
University. As a part of this course, preservice
teacher candidates complete a four-week mod
ule on The Role of the Teacher in the English
Language Development of Els. One week focuses
solely on teachers learning to advocate for Els.
advocate for students and
their families to ensure
that their voices are
heard…. Teachers engage
families in practices that
empower them to become
advocates for their chil
dren…. They promote
educational opportunities
for their students by advo
cating for local, state, and federal funding of programs that
advance instructional programs and services for English language
learners. (NBPTS, 2010, p. 93)
advocacy acts in schools and beyond. In this
course, teacher candidates discuss their roles as
teachers of Els in the context of advocacy
efforts in their classrooms, schools, and commu
nities and what they can do to ensure Els
receive an equitable education. They discuss
how they can advocate for Els and obtain
resources for these students.
educators must examine EL achievement from the perspective of advo
cacy. In this chapter, the need to advocate for ELs was framed around
such factors as EL demographics, the EL/non-EL achievement gap, and
the lack of preparation for teachers to effectively work with ELs. Advo
cacy for ELs was defined and presented within a scaffolded approach, in
which each EL’s background variables must be known and addressed
24 • Advocating for English Learners
addition, the EL deficit paradigm was examined, and ELs’ strengths were
highlighted. The chapter closed with a description of the TESOL and
NBPTS professional teaching standards’ new focus on advocacy as nec
essary for all teachers of ELs. Chapter 2 will focus on creating a sense of
shared responsibility for teaching ELs.
Psychometrics issues. Educational Assessment, 83(3), 231-257.
learners: A guide for principals. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Challenges in contested times. Tempe: Education Policy Research Unit, Arizona
State University.
and beyond: New teachers’ challenges and responses. Teachers College Record,
110(1), 64–104.
L. C. Wilkinson (Eds.), The education of English language learners: Research to
practice (pp. 222-247). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
learners: Building teacher capacity. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for
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tion. In R. K. Brown (Ed.), Knowledge, education and cultural change (pp. 71-112).
London, UK: Tavistock.
Matters.
Hammond, J. French, & S. P. Garcia-Lopez (Eds.), Learning to teach for social
justice (pp. 1-7). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
curriculum teachers for all learners. In M. E. Brisk (Ed.), Language, culture, and
community in teacher education (pp. 127-148). New York, NY: Erlbaum.
CA: Jossey~Bass.
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.org/go/qc09
Austin, TX: National Center for Community and Family Connections with
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Freire, P. (1985). The politics ofeducation: Culture power and liberation. South Hadley,
Fry, R. (2008). The role of schools in the English language learner achievement gap.
panic.org/ topics /?Topicl0;4
language learners: A survey of California teachers’ challenges, experiences, and pro
fessional development needs. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for the Future of Teaching
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ingforweb
Press.
& Garvey.
South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey.
English language proficiency standards in PreK-12 classrooms. Alexandria, VA:
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N. Gonzalez, L. Moll, & C. Amanti (Eds.), Funds of knowledge (pp. 143-151).
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York, NY: Routledge.
achievement and attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 417–442.
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Collazo, T. (2004). Working toward third space in content area literacy: An
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Quarterly, 39(1), 38-70.
teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms.
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new language standards (2nd ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
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minorities%22
The growing number of English learner students. Retrieved from http:/ /www
.ncela.gwu.edu/files/uploads/9 / growing_EL_0910
tion for the 21st century (pp. 152-170). New York, NY: Longman.
ing teachers. Longfellow Lecture, Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville, NY
A multicultural perspective in multicultural education (6th ed.) (pp. 424-443).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
preparation for teaching linguistically and culturally diverse learners in rural
eastern North Carolina. The Rural Educator, 30(1), p. 5-13. Retrieved from
http:/ /www.ruraleducator.net/archive/30-1/30-LONeal
math and reading in the elementary grades. American Educational Research
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Irvine: University of California, Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. Retrieved from
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approaches to race, class, and gender (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
guage learners: Practical applications for the TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching
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colorado.org/article/50848 / #authors
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Handbook ofresearch on multicultural education (pp. 420-437). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
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.org/s_tesol/ seccss.asp?CID=219&DID=1689
education. Retrieved from http:/ /www.huildassest.org/products/latinopa
rentreport/latinoparen trept.h tm
knowledge among U.S. Mexican households. Anthropology and Education
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former ELI.s, and English-proficient students. Paper presented at the annual meet
ing of the American Education Research Association. Denver, CO. Retrieved
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& Sapru, S. (2003). Descriptive study of services to LEP students and LEP students
with disabilities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of
English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic
Achievement of Limited English Proficient Students.
. . . . :
•·• . I_, .
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‘LANGUAGE TEACtll\~G
Teacher Reflection
The Fessenden School
s a young African American girl, I knew that social justice didn’t exist for every
1. at the root of what needs to be changed in our teaching practices (Larrivee, 2000). Our
Importance of Teacher Reflection in Social Justice Work
Institutionalized and internalized racism in teacher pedagogy take a back seat to many
other aspects of our profession that have been, or are being, researched. For decades
,
the field of English language teaching (ELT) has gone unquestioned about its lack of
responsibility in educating teachers about why English is taught and has become the
dominant language. The root causes and effects of colonialism have made English the
powerhouse it is today, but this reality has come laden with unchecked perceptions
that are a result of living in a racist society. One can not live in a racist society and be
untouched by it. The connections between ELT around the world, colonization, and
racism are undeniable (Phillipson, 1992). The English language cannot be separated
nor be in isolation from the social and political conditions in which it operates
(Hornberger, 2008). Therefore, it would stand to reason that a field such as TESOL,
operating in the 21st century, would be investing heavily in teacher education and
training to require teachers, instructors, or facilitators of English language learners to
reflect personally on the topics of diversity, racism, and White privilege (Nieto, 2000)
because student outcomes (educational, emotional, psychological and health) can
be affected.
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED
This chapter uses various key terms repeatedly; thus, it is important to define them
early. The terms teachers, facilitators, and instructors will be used interchangeably.
In some cases, the following meanings will be ascribed: teacher will be used in the
traditional sense, instructor where the primary goal is to inform, and facilitator
where the person acts as a guide. As for the term diversity, Kubota and Lin (2006)
have extensively defined the concepts of White privilege and institutionalized and
internalized racism, and this chapter will use those definitions. Race is described
as
a non-biological term, which has to be treated as an evolving term. Ethnicity, unlike
race, distinguishes people using various characteristics, such as ancestry and language.
However, culture and its relationship with race and ethnicity is more complex, and
is used as “a more benign and acceptable signifier than race” (Kubota & Lin, 2006,
p. 476). As for Whiteness, the authors define that term as an invisible and unmarked
norm. In addition, the term TESOL represents the field of study, unless contextually
noted in particular sections of the paper as the organization.
Diversity is generally understood through Loden and Rosener’s (1990) Diversity
Wheel, which identifies characteristics (shown on an inner circle) that are core to our
identities, and secondary dimensions (shown on an outer circle) that are important
differences generally acquired later in life. The inner circle is divided into six sections:
race, ethnicity, age, gender, physical abilities/qualities, and sexual/affectional orien
tation. The outer part of the wheel lists these dimensions: work experience, income,
marital status, military experience, religious beliefs, geographic location, and educa
tion. The inner and outer circles help show how the characteristics are interrelated to
affect individuals.
12
THE FIRST STEP TOWARD SOCIAL JUSTICE
done. On the TESOL website, the mission, core values, and nondiscrimination policy
are outlined as follows:
TESOL’s Mission
TESOL is an international association of professionals advancing the quality of
English language teaching through professional development, research, standards,
and advocacy.
Core Values
• Professionalism demonstrated by excellence in standards, research, and practice
that improve learning outcomes
• Respect for diversity, multilingualism, multiculturalism, and individuals’
language rights
• Integrity guided by ethical and transparent action
• Commitment to life-long learning
Vision Statement
To become the trusted global authority for knowledge and expertise in English
language teaching
Nondiscrimination Policy
In principle and in practice, TESOL values and seeks diverse and inclusive partici
pation within the field of English language teaching. TESOL promotes involvement
and broad access to professional opportunities for all and works to eliminate any
kind of discrimination including, but not limited to, language background, race,
ethnicity, gender, religion, age, sexual orientation, nationality, disability, appear
ance, or geographic location (http://www.tesol.org/about-tesol
/association-governance/mission-and-values).
TESOL International Association has made moves to address issues of race in
the profession, as can be seen in multiple position statements favoring diversity and
equity, a 2006 Special Topic Issue of TESOL Quarterly on Race and TESOL, and
a
nascent “diversity collaborative initiative,” but there is a need to go beyond this. It is
an issue when a professional association made up of a diverse group of professional
educators who validate the merits of diversity and multiculturalism does not do
enough to explicitly inform teachers in a meaningful way about the many facets of
diversity, like systemic racism and privilege. Certain TESOL special interest groups,
like the Social Responsibility Interest Section and the Nonnative English Speakers in
TESOL Interest Section deal with issues of race and privilege as a part of their larger
goals, but there is not a specific forum where their importance is emphasized. This
begs the question: When these issues are not confronted, does this reflect deeper
issues of institutional and structural racism? Our thinking must move into 21st
15
http://www.tesol.org/about-tesol
THE FIRST STEP TOWARD SOCIAL JUSTICE
Racism in its simplest form can be explained in this way: race + power = racism.
Critical race theory rejects the definition of racism found in standard dictionaries.
Tatum (1997) even attributes this term exclusively to White people. It is systemic and
institutionalized at its most damaging level. Institutionalized racism is vastly different
from interpersonal racism.
The National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS) (2005) defines diversity,
multiculturalism, inclusivity, and equity and justice in this way:
Diversity is who we are. It is quantitative. It is defined by “otherness.” Most
obviously it is determined by race, gender, and culture. On a more subtle level, it
includes class, sexual orientation, religion, ability, and appearance. In a democratic
nation we define ourselves through diversity. We believe in equal opportunity and
equal access. Diversity exists in spite of, and sometimes because of, the action
we take.
Multiculturalism is an evolving process. It is qualitative. It is the shift that
occurs when we stop defining everyone by one cultural norm and move to an
understanding of multiple norms. Critical to this process is the breaking down of
systemic barriers to equity and justice. Chief among these are the various “isms,”
such as racism and sexism. Multiculturalism exists only when we make an informed
commitment to change.
lnclusivity is building and sustaining communities in policies, programs, and
practices. Diversity (the numbers) is the foundation from which to establish and
sustain inclusivity.
Equity and Justice focuses on empowerment and co-ownership of the com
munity in strategically building on and sustaining diversity, multiculturalism, and
inclusivity. (NAIS, 2005)
White privilege is another term to consider when investigating teacher education
and professional development. Here is how DiAngelo (2006) describes Whiteness:
“Whiteness scholars define Whiteness as reference to a set of locations that are
historically, socially, politically, and culturally produced, and intrinsically linked to
relations of domination” (p. 1984).
The concept of teacher reflection referenced in this chapter branches off from
Plato, who espoused that a teacher should facilitate the reflection necessary for
intellectual autonomy; Dewey, who encouraged a state of questioning and a drive to
find answers; and Schon who proposed continuous learning as a part of professional
development, with reflection on and in action. Instead, this chapter proposes to deal
more directly with the race and power dynamic with critical teacher reflection more
along the lines of Tyrone Howard, who proposes “that the development of culturally
relevant teaching strategies is contingent upon critical reflection about race and cul
ture of teachers and their students” (195). Howard further proposes that reflecting on
our practice in a deep and meaningful way that can create ripple effect of positive and
equitable change. The teacher becomes the object of analysis in respect to our social
responsibility to deal with it from within, so that we are aware when aversive racism
13
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
takes over and we act upon it. She or he becomes the object of self-inquiry through his
or her experiential Jens. I view reflection as a crucial cognitive practice, which would
have the teacher reflect on the various research topics like aversive racism (Gaertner
and Dovidio), intergroup bias (Amodio), racial identity development theory (Tatum),
whiteness (Jensen, Tochluk), white fragility (DiAngelo),visible and invisible race
(Butler), and more.
As the reader can gather, there are a number of complex factors that play into this
idea of “race” in the field of TESOL. These terms help guide the discussion necessary
for teachers to have in order to be most effective in dispensing guidance and materials
to students acquiring and learning language. Thus, critical reflection as a tool for
ongoing personal and professional development will move us closer to a more human
istic and just way of providing instruction in the English language.
HISTORY EXAMINED
A number of complex factors play into this idea of “race” in the field of TESOL
(Howatt, 2004). The current research on diversity, race, culture, and identity in second
language should also drive professional development in the field. We must consider
the impact of these topics in the TESOL field in order for us to be considered relevant.
There has been a long tradition of focusing on methodology without much attention
to the roots of the discipline and why it exists in the first place. How did our profession
come to be? Must we always be mindful of reasons why English is being taught in the
first place? How was it “decided” that English would be the global language? We live in
a world that demands us to deal with the past that has plagued our present society in
terms of social equity and justice. For decades, the field of TESOL has been known as
the “nice” profession (Kubota, 2002) because we help prepare people throughout the
world to communicate with one another using one language, English.
Our field of study is rare in its self-assessment: We as a group believe that we are
predisposed to understand and empathize with the Other. Our population of students
automatically is from countries, most likely previously colonized, where English is
not spoken by the majority of people (Lin & Luke, 2006; Pennycook, 1998; Phillipson, t
1992). In order to resist all forms of imperialism, including linguistic (Canagarapah, e
1999), we have to be informed. n
Since the literature is pointing in this direction of recognizing the reasons why a
English is the international language and how it is impacting us, we as TESOL
educators should heed the call. I asked myself, “What is the TESOL International
Association’s position on how we got here? How are we as an organization owning and
reflecting on our past, in terms of our mission and values?” I found that as an insti
tution, it is closely aligned to diversity and inclusion in its noncritical sense. TESOL
International Association is a professional association that includes people from go
diverse backgrounds, but much of the deeper, critical work of dissecting race, White be
privilege, and social justice throughout all the tenets of the organization is yet to be is
14
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
century, because the deeper issues become apparent when various groups co
within the organization. What does respect for diversity and multiculturalism
in the context of profession developments for educators to collaborate with le
from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds when the professional educato
not given the needed space to specifically address race issues and to be a support
resource for those trying to address race issues in the field? The mission and val
are too vague for the issue of equity at various levels of the profession to be
ad
consistently throughout the organization.
A number of articles, written in the 1980s and late 1990s, were nominally a
diversity, but under the classification of multiculturalism (Ladson-Billings, 199
However, the focus of this chapter is deeper and demands more work on the part
the policy makers and administrators who dictate what facilitators learn in order
be effective.
ANECDOTAL TO REALITY
In order to test my assumptions on which ethnic group makes up the majority of
teachers, instructors, and facilitators, the data had to be checked. The profession
also strikingly “White” (Feistritzer, 2011, p. x). The anecdotal information match
the reality: A majority of the teachers in the field of education and TESOL thro
u
the world are White, even desired over others, and White females: “Teaching is
an overwhelmingly female occupation. It would stand to reason that many if not
have internalized racism, since we live in a racist society.
The combination of the curricula chosen by a White establishment, female t
of European descent, unchecked White privilege, and a diverse student populatio
does not lend itself to informed teaching. In this case, the teachers do not have to
about race, yet they are teaching those who do (McLaren & Munoz, 2000). The s
i
tion seems like a recipe for disaster. Why would White privilege not be dealt with
many of the teachers who teach students of Color are in a role that inherently inv
power differentials of teacher/student or gatekeeper/learner? Privilege is the basis
that relationship. Peggy McIntosh, in The White Privilege Conference (2015), wro
Privilege exists when one group has something of value that is denied to others
simply because of the groups they belong to , rather than because of anything they’ve
done or failed to do. Access to privilege doesn’t determine one’s outcomes, but it is
definitely an asset that makes it more likely that whatever talent, ability, and aspira
tions aperson with privilege has will result in something positive for them. (n.p.)
Researching the literature, I wanted to know what various teaching programs
offered in terms of diversity and White privilege. One of the most prestigious in
tions for teacher education is Teachers College at Columbia University. Even tho
the program claims to provide a foundation in pedagogical questions, it does not
the issue of race as its primary study emphasis. It is unfortunate that the program
emphasis is not in alignment with the topic of equity and social justice at its core,
16
THE FIRST STEP TOWARD SOCIAL JUSTICE
“it is difficult to for a white person to get a good education in race and gender in our
colleges and universities” (McIntosh, 2009, p. 5). More can and should be done.
TEACHING IS NOT ANEUTRAL ACT
There is no indication that what seems to be an essential issue in this field is going
to take a pivotal role. Arguably, in the field of diversity work, everything is steeped
in some form of racism. Therefore, how is it possible for institutions to ignore the
obvious? Is it because of the political nature of racism? If it is true that race is linked
to our existence, then researchers, teachers, facilitators, and instructors must move
quickly to meet the demands that diversity requires in this type of work.
Instead of confronting racial issues as they pertain to the various subtopics and
issues of TESOL’s 40-year review, Canagarajah (2006) speaks broadly of issues of bias
in a larger discussion of Critical Pedagogy (CP) and Critical Thinking (CT), stating
that “CP . .. is more dialogical and reflexive in that it encourages students to interro
gate thinking in relation to material life, one’s own biases, and one’s social and histor
ical positioning” (15-16). While Canagarajah makes a good start with encouraging
students to critically examine their relationships to the world and their own biases, his
advice should also be expanded to English language teachers. Similarly, the discussion
of identity focuses primarily on the role it plays in language learning, while the scope
of the discussion should be expanded to the role identity plays in teaching language.
Kincheloe (2004) asserts that a more critical approach is needed, as TESOL’s focus has
been directed at topics such as assessing language skills, meeting student population
needs, and special content areas on the environment, without regard for the obvious.
There has been much research and data collected on providing either multicultural
content to learners or recognizing the diverse student populations in order to provide
appropriate materials in the classroom. In addition, we have paid attention to teacher
education, training, and observation, but rarely do we combine the two. The focal
point has not been on the dispensers of the content and teaching.
Compared to other disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, and education,
the field of TESOL is lagging behind (Kubota & Lin, 2006) in catching up with an
obvious issue that plagues the profession. Consideration and research is being devoted
primarily to the issues of acquisition, technology, World Englishes, and pedagogy; but
the fact that we live in a society fundamentally rooted in injustice, subconscious and
conscious, leads us to the conclusion that such issues should be addressed primarily
(Norton & Toohey, 2004). In reality, these issues matter (Leung, Harris, & Pumpton,
1997). However, my focus here will be on ethnic and cultural bias.
There are a number of articles focusing on bridging the cultural divide in the class
room between English language learners and textbooks that will reflect the diversity
in the classroom. Rarely, however, does one find a mirror being placed in front of the
teacher to reflect inward for professional development in the area of race. If student
outcomes are related to teachers’ professional development, then it stands to reason
that teachers should be well versed in matters of diversity, “race,” and ethnicity (Dee,
17
;
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
2005; Ladson-Billings, 1999b; Lippi-Green, 2002) . This is especially true when it come
to the “mirror image” identity awareness, internalized racism, and “affective filter” as it
pertains to anxiety, stress, and motivation.
ETHOS, PEDAGOGY, AND TEACHER TRAINING
Teacher beliefs can and do include bias, such as nativism and perceptions of who
English belongs to. The assumption is that English language instructors, teachers,
and facilitators are equipped to work with learners from other countries. Perceptions
can be especially damaging if an instructor both belongs to the dominant group and
has not done the reflection necessary to always be mindful of one’s approach when
choosing content and materials and of how one interacts with the language learners
(Delgado & Stefancic, 1997). Antiracist work has to be employed, because the research
has informed us to put it into practice (Kailin, 2002). In many cases, racism is based on
lack of knowledge and actual experience among various ethnic groups other than one’s
own. We do not know what kind of biases are being brought to the desk.
More likely than not, TESOL teachers have internalized biases, i.e. ‘hidden biases’
about the various cultural groups that they encounter in the classroom. In addition, if
educators have not looked inwardly to decode or deconstruct both the institutional
ized and the personalized racism that exists in this country and other countries, they
will do a disservice to the students they teach.
The perspectives come out of living in a society that ignores race or misinterprets
its power and also out of how we operate through our pedagogy and in our research.
This is evident in Lin’s account of commonly held blind preferences for the selection
of a white teacher over a nonnative English-speaking teacher in the name of nativism
(Kubota & Lin, 2006) and in Kubota’s discourse with Atkinson (Kubota, 2002). Teach
ing also underscores the role that English as an international language plays for global
communication (Warschauer, 2000). Even though teaching is moving into other
technologies, such as computer-based learning and distance learning, people-with
their biases and racism-will produce those programs. In addition, Bashir-Ali’s (2006)
research provides evidence for teachers’ lack of empathy and understanding, which
has both positive and negative implications for the future of the discipline. Such items
would need to be addressed in order to meet the vital needs of the learner.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY/TEACHER OBLIGATION
Preparing teachers for a truly inclusive environment makes self-reflection on racism
and White privilege mandatory. The discourse between Atkinson (2002) and Kubota
(2002) demonstrates this clearly. When White researchers do not understand the
concept of race and its various facets and levels, Atkinson’s response to Kubota is inev
itable. No one wants to be viewed as racist, but one needs to understand that being
part of a racist society and benefiting from it makes a person racist. Being racist is not
only at the individual level. Racism occurs at personal, interpersonal, institutional, and
18
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THE FIRST STEP TOWARD SOCIAL JUSTICE
cultural levels. Castagno {2008) describes how a discussion on race can be silenced
by a reaction of denial and dismissal. A White male, for example, has to comprehend
how privilege works. Instead of being outraged at being called a racist, he should take
responsibility for the privilege he receives as a White male.
It stands to reason that a teacher’s views and perceptions can have an effect on
the learner (Morgan, 2004), but rarely does the onus focus on the main instrument
of change: teachers, facilitators, and instructors of TESOL. Other disciplines, such as
psychology and sociology, recognize that teacher education has to include diversity
work and White privilege study.
A teacher’s cultural competency is of great importance within 21st-century
learning paradigms. Cultural competency is essential for 21st-century learning for
both students and teachers. A paradigm shift has to occur in order to view this as an
asset, not a deficit.
The struggle for social justice must be employed in all disciplines in order to
eradicate the negative impact of social injustices. The field of TESOL is no exception.
Lifelong learning would include this essential piece that has many implications for
education and for wider societal obligations (Ladson-Billings, 1999b).
If preservice teachers are to develop the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and peda
gogical skills to address their own ideas about social injustice, then they must be given
education courses dealing with diversity and White privilege theory before they enter
classrooms. These courses must include the work necessary to address issues of race,
ethnicity, and social injustice in preservice and in-service education on an on-going
basis throughout their training. One or two classes during the teacher educational
program would not be sufficient. Social justice work can not be dealt with once in
awhile. The nature of injustice is insidious, thus it should be treated as such.
IMPLICATIONS FOR INDEPENDENT SCHOOLS
The data point to public educational institutions, not private entities; thus there is
room for much research in this area. With their push to diversify, private/independent
schools have specific, unique challenges and responsibilities to meet these goals.
However, their exclusive nature and the original intent for such schools has meant that
progress is slow. Some schools are intentional in this pace and others are not.
National organizations, such as NAIS (National Association of Independent
Schools), and regional organizations, such as AISNE (Association of Independent
Schools of New England), are contributing to the issue of educating teachers and
administrators on various aspects of diversity work. Some smaller organizations, such
as DiversityWorks, VISIONS, and Ibis, provide consulting to educational institutions
and professional training for the faculty and staff. In addition, NAIS has an equity
and justice preamble and principles to guide the member schools. Unfortunately, the
organization has no mandate over the schools and some schools choose to ignore
these principles.
15
i
u
a
i
C
I
1
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Conclusion
Although a clear need for English language educators to address issues of social
injustice in education has been demonstrated in the literature, only limited progress
has been made and the status quo remains in most institutions. The research can open
up new avenues of inquiry. After reviewing the literature, there may also be implica
tions to levels of self-esteem and lower anxiety issues associated with “comprehensible
input” (Krashen, 1981). The affective filter hypothesis embodies Krashen’s view that
a number of”affective variables” play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second
language acquisition. These variables include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.
Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image,
and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisi
tion. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to “raise”
the affective filter and form a “mental block” that prevents comprehensible input
from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is “up” it impedes
language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient
on its own, for acquisition to take place. Greater understanding of who we are, what
impact that will have, and about the world we all live in will all help us to become true
facilitators of the English language, thus becoming more effective in our practice.
Are school culture, community, interpersonal relationships, curriculum, and
institutional policy all operating under the guidelines of diversity in terms of equity
and justice? The impact would be tremendous if teachers were trained in anti-racist
theory and practice (Lawrence & Tatum, 1997). The research shows that teacher
beliefs are integral to learner outcomes. There are benefits, not costs, in doing this
work. Granted, it will be challenging for those who deny other people’s realities, but
once this diversity work is understood, the benefits outweigh the costs. This new
understanding and approach would sustain the whole school in a vastly meaningful
and transformative way. An atmosphere of cultural inquiry and lifelong learning is
essential to greater understanding and empathy. How responsible does a teacher feel
toward any given learners’ outcomes? If a teacher wants to be responsible, she must
be proactive in this endeavor by working her hardest to ensure that her underlying
perceptions do not interfere with how her students are learning.
Isn’t the mission of advancing excellence in English language teaching what
the collective wants? As the discipline continues to move on within this complex
society, providing adults who teach, facilitate, and instruct learners of English with
continual self-reflection should remain a priority. We need to define high standards
and guide ethical behavior around equity and justice. Starting with the “agents of
change” is a logical beginning. Research that ignores or simplifies the issue of diversity,
racism, and social justice will have very little impact on the quality of the language
learner experience.
20
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THE FIRST STEP TOWARD SOCIAL JUSTICE
Professional Practices to Implement Teacher Reflection Work
ocial How can a teacher teach students to be socially responsible when she has not done the
progress work herself? The TESOL professional should do her research or be well read on the
rh can open topic, push herself to have real-life experiences that will teach her about said issues,
implica keep Teacher Reflection Journals, and have continual dialogues with other individuals
rehensible working on dismantling White privilege and seeking equity in the lives of others and
iew that in their classrooms.
~cond
nd anxiety.
Self-Reflection and Deconstruction of Cultural Identityself-image,
e acquisi Underlying all relationships, whether teacher to student or student to student, is the
~ to “raise” need to connect on various levels. Thus, professional development programs in the
·nput field of TESOL should require that student teachers take courses that look closely
pedes at issues on diversity and inclusion, such as stereotype threat, adverse racism, and
t sufficient White privilege. Such courses should be consistent throughout their academic career
re, what or teacher training. If students in teacher education programs are to teach diverse
.come true student populations, they must also reflect on and deconstruct their cultural norms
and expectations, because all these factors will play out and have an impact on the
,and students they teach in and outside of the classroom. This is especially relevant and
f equity imperative when the majority of teachers in public, private, and parochial schools
ti-racist are of European descent, that is, White. Therefore, the practitioner, the teacher, must
lcher reflect on the self (Irving, 2014; Jensen, 2005; Kubota & Lin, 2009). Teachers can gain
ng this access to many resources (Butler, 2012; Tochluk, 2010) that can initiate awareness of
ties, but this social ill that affects us all.
,new Robert Jensen (2005) stated, “To accept whiteness, to truly believe in it, is to
ningful deform oneself. The privileges and material benefits that come from being white in a
ning is white-supremacist society come at a cost to us white people. Whiteness is based on
cher feel lies not only about others but lies about ourselves, and we can’t lay claim to our fullte must humanity until we find our way out of the web of denial” (pp. xix-xx).
erlying
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23
www.whiteprivilegeconference.com/white_privilege.html
www.nais.org
ADVOCATING
j9r ENGLISH
LEARNERS
•••••••••••••• I’ ••••••••••••••••••••• “+ •••••••••••••••• ” …………………………………… . ……………… .
I
A Guidefor Educators
A Joint Publication
Diane Staehr Fenner
FOREWORD BY JOHN SEGOTA
Creating a
Shared Sense o
f
Responsibility
for Teaching
English Learners
0 ne of the first steps toward effectively advocating for ELs’ equitable
education is recognizing that everyone involved in ELs’ education
must share the responsibility for ensuring their success. All school stake
holders who impact ELs’ lives, including content and general education
teachers, music teachers, special education teachers, art teachers, cafeteria
workers, guidance counselors, physical education teachers, janitors, and
administrators will have an effect on the education ELs receive. However,
educators may not fully realize the extent to which they have the opportu
nity to positively impact an EL’s education. All educators must first share
a sense of responsibility for providing an equitable education for ELs so
thaMhey will be willing to change the ways in which they work with ELs
to recognize ELs’ unique strengths as well as address ELs’ specific linguis
tic and cultural needs through instruction. In addition, if they feel respon
sible for teaching ELs, they will also be more likely to go beyond teaching
ELs effectively and also advocate for ELs’ equitable education.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will begin by presenting a framework from which to estab
lish the need to build shared responsibility for equitably educating ELs to
• 27
28 • Advocating for English Learners
prepare educators to begin to advocate or.
What does the term shared responsibility their behalf. It will first focus on the
to educate Els mean to you? importance of creating a sense of empathy
for the EL experience, bearing in mind
that ELs are not a monolithic group, and each EL’s academic experience b
different. This framework will also recognize that ELs’ experiences tran
scend the more visible facet of their U.S. academic experience, extending
to ELs’ social and community lives in the United States and their country
of birth or their parents’ countries of birth. 1 It will also ground the need
to build a shared sense of responsibility for working with ELs in researc!–.
and best practice as well as show the necessity for all teachers to seek and
gain their ELs’ trust.
THE COMMON CORE STATE
STANDARDS’ CALL FOR SHARED RESPONSIBILITY
In addition to the need for educators to share responsibility rooted in the::
moral imperative to do so, the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) sur
port the need to share the responsibility to include ELs. The CCSS do sob:,
insisting that instruction in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and lar.
guage be a shared responsibility within schools by the very nature of tht:
standards’ structure and content. For example, the K-5 standards defir.t:
expectations for reading, writing, speaking, listening, and language tha:
are applicable to a range of subjects, not only English Language Arts. Stan
dards in Grades 6-12 are divided into two sections, one for English lan
guage arts and the other for literacy in history/social studies, science, an-:
technical subjects. With this paradigm shift brought forth by the CCSS
every teacher must now simultaneously be a teacher of language, literac:,
and content. In order for ELs to be successful in achieving the CCSS, a~~
teachers must first examine what sharing responsibility to foster ELs’ aca
demic success looks like in their context. In addition, teachers must cc’.
laborate so that ELs can access the Common Core.
Definition of Shared Responsibility
This chapter uses the term shared responsibility to describe the mind-st>:
that all educators must see themselves as equal stakeholders who mu:;.:
strive to positively influence the education of ELs in the classroom as we:.
1. The majority of ELs are born in the United States, so it cannot be assumed that all ELs ha·,:
been born in a country outside the United States. In addition, a student’s or parent’s coun::
of birth may be different from the country in which the child has received schooling.
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 29
as outside of school. Many ESL teachers express that they feel that content
area or general education teachers see ELs only as the “ESL teachers’ kids.”
That is, compared to content teachers, ESL teachers sometimes feel that
they are expected to make the majority of choices with respect to ELs’ edu
cation. ESL teachers may also feel more immediately accountable for ELs’
academic success (Staehr Fenner & Kuhlman, 2012).
For example, ESL teachers may find themselves determining which
accommodations ELs receive on assessments, taking the lead on seeking
out resources available in the community for EL families, and serving as
ad hoc language interpreters as necessary. It is completely understandable
that content teachers and administrators often turn to ESL teachers to
assume a lead role in these areas, as ESL teachers have tended to receive
more specialized training in working with ELs and their families through
preservice teacher education programs.
In addition, many teachers and administrators may depend on ESL
teachers to advocate for ELs, because they have not had the experience of
learning a language in addition to English and/or traveling to a foreign
country, let alone having been immersed in a school in which the culture and
language are completely new. For these reasons, many teachers and admin
istrators may not fully understand the EL experience in terms of what ELs’
needs are or be familiar with community resources that are available and
appropriate for ELs or their families. Yet it is everyone’s charge to ensure ELs
succeed; the responsibility for ELs’ success both in school as well as outside
the school walls should extend to all educators who interact with them.
In particular, teachers’ desire to share responsibility for ELs and advo
cate for their equitable education is inextricably intertwined with their
expectations for ELs and beliefs about educating them. This desire is also
linked to their ability to support their students’ success through collabora
tion with colleagues, administrators, and the community as a whole. How
ever, until now, most content area teachers have not realized that serving as
a voice for ELs and their families is a prerequisite for their students to be
able to fully engage in instruction and succeed in school and beyond. Only
after teachers and administrators realize the great sense of urgency that all
educators must share the responsibility for equitably educating ELs can the
best available research, methods, strategies, and professional development
(PD) for working with ELs be truly beneficial and worthwhile.
Theoretical Framework for Sharing Responsibility
This chapter will begin by examining several factors that impact how
educators can move through a process to more actively share the responsibil
ity for providing an equitable education for ELs. These factors influence
shared responsibility. Each factor will be described and applications of it will
be prO\ided through activities. Educators should examine each of the factors
in the sequence outlined. First they will examme their beliefs and expec7a
tions about working with ELs, and then they will reflect on their own cultu..c
and its impact on their teaching. Next, educators build empathy for Els a.~. .:
:: e:r iamilies, and finally they collaborate with various stakeholders invoh·e.::
::t £Ls” education. The process is iterative and requires continually moYi:-.::
:hrough the sequence so that shared responsibility for ELs changes to acc(‘::’·
modate new Els and their families as well as new issues that arise with c:.:.:-
rent Els. Figure 2.1 is a graphic representation of this process.
Figure 2.1. Factors That Influence Shared Responsibility
WHAT THE RESEARCH TELLS US
Some researchers (e.g., English; Lewis-Moreno) have recently be~_·
investigating the creation of a sense of shared responsibility for edu-::.:. ·
ing ELs as one component of the effective education of these stude:- :
For example, through analysis of top-down and bottom-up discou:;:.: –
among various teaching professionals, English (2009) attempts to dec:
struct the ideological assumptions about how ELs learn. English belie·. : –
expectations
·about language
;ancl;.y.c;>r~io9.. ·.;
.
;WithEli:s ,’•.ic1,,
dtamongESL
i ·.te~c,hE3r~. conter:it
teachers, ,and
··· ‘· aditliriistrators
· /;6ollaboration
EdUcatci}s•t· ·
reflectiorr6ii
1tfi~1r: .
own Clllture;anclit§ ;
impact ◊n th”~if:!H7
·teachihg ,:;:];;;
‘ -:zf·t ;
J;rnpathyJqt:f!:igs
and thejtf~r:n)lfes
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 31
that professional development (PD) can help to promote pedagogical
change that incorporates shared responsibility into educating EL
students. This researcher found general education teachers need support
to improve their practice of sharing responsibility for teaching ELs.
Lewis-Moreno (2007) argues that general education classroom teachers
are just as responsible for the success of EL students as administrators and
EL specialists. She posits that all teachers have a moral responsibility to
ensure the success of ELs, and that every teacher, regardless of role or spe
cific job description, must be given the charge to incorporate strategies that
develop the language acquisition of ELs. She also believes that school dis
tricts may see more success from ELs if everyone is provided the right
tools to teach these learners.
Issues of content teacher attitudes and the importance of developing
trust between EL students and their teachers are also related to the concept
of sharing responsibility to educate ELs. For example, Reeves (2006) inves
tigated teacher attitudes toward teaching EL students and discovered that
most teachers had a neutral to positive
attitude toward teaching ELs in general
How would you rate your own attitude
education classes. Her quantitative study, toward working with Els?
however, revealed that many of the teach
ers are misinformed about how ELs learn
and acquire language. Moreover, many of these same teachers were
ambivalent about learning how to teach ELs. Her findings point to a dis
connect between the teachers’ generally positive attitudes toward teaching
ELs in their content area classrooms and their reluctance to take action to
improve upon their abilities to better educate those same students.
Developing trust between ELs and their teachers is one key to ELs’
success in school. Wassell, Hawrylak, and La Van (2010) found that, for
many of the EL students they studied, gaining the trust of a teacher was
tantamount to being given the opportunity to learn English successfully.
If they felt that the teacher respected their culture, the ELs were more
apt to take certain risks and make important mistakes that facilitated
their learning. Without developing such trust, learning opportunities
remained hidden.
Finally, Honigsfeld and Dove (2010) posited that several factors point
to the need for collaboration in schools so that ELs can succeed. They point
out that sociocultural, socioeconomic, affective, linguistic, and academic
factors can impact an EL’s success. The authors also report that administra
tors face several challenges in creating a collaborative environment in their
schools to ensure the equitable education of ELs. Among these challenges
are ESL program compliance and accountability, creating a positive school
culture for ELs, and balancing the needs of all stakeholders.
32 • Advocating for English learners
In sum, research tells us that shared responsibility for teaching ELs
contains many layers of complexity. This emerging area of study includes
the role of PD in shaping educators’ dispositions toward working with
ELs, building trust between ELs and their teachers, and fostering collabo
ration among all stakeholders who work with ELs so that ELs can succeed.
Educators should consider how developed all of these factors are in their
own practices so that they can contribute to creating an environment that
is conducive to ELs’ success.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO SHARE
RESPONSIBILITY FOR TEACHING ENGLISH LEARNERS
The remainder of the chapter details sample activities educators can use
individually or with groups of educators to
• Raise awareness about their beliefs regarding language and
teaching ELs
• Examine the cultures that they bring to their experiences as educators
• Explore what it feels like to be an EL at a beginning stage of English
proficiency in an academic classroom setting
• Feel what it’s like to be the parent or family member2 of an EL with
beginning English prohciency anc
\
‘i.i’L’t’i.e \mow\ea.ge o\ \\\e D.S.
school system
• Increase collaboration among content teachers, administrators, and
ESL teachers3
Even if educators don’t find themselves in that more formal situation,
they can still use these tools for their personal PD. Admittedly, these
sample PD activities only begin to skim the surface of the EL and EL fam
ily member experience in order to increase educators’ empathy for this
population of students, and the activities are also not meant to be prescrip
tive in nature. It is also not possible to fully experience the multifaceted
world of an EL in just one PD session. The intent of these activities is to
2. I use the term parent interchangeably with family member here, because ELs may haw
extended family such as older siblings, aunts, uncles, grandparents, and trusted family
friends that serve the expected role of parents. In addition, some ELs may arrive in the
United States after long periods of separation from their biological parents; in such situa
tions, these parents of ELs may not be as informed of the ELs’ prior schooling and life
experiences as other family members may be.
3. I use the term English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher to encompass any specialist tha:
provides linguistic support to ELs; this would also include bilingual education teachers.
https://mow\ea.ge
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners
apply some of the current research and best practices to move the needle
in the direction of creating a shared sense of responsibility for educating
ELs through an experiential approach.
Survey of Teachers’ and Administrators’ Beliefs on Educating Els
Teachers should first ascertain their perspectives on language as well
as their feelings regarding working with ELs. Use of the two-part survey4
in Figures 2.2a and 2.2b is one way to begin this dialogue. The survey
should be taken anonymously, and it can be taken prior to a PD session so
that the PD facilitator can tabulate the scores before beginning of the PD to
more effectively tailor the PD to the needs of the group.
The sample survey consists of two interrelated parts: Part One: Per
spectives on Language and Part Two: Preparation for Teaching. Part One,
Perspectives on Language, examines educators’ beliefs and values
regarding the political and sociocultural aspects of using English and
other languages in the home, school, and society. Part Two, Preparation
for Teaching, focuses on respondents’ self-reported level of expertise and
comfort in designing and implementing instruction for English learners.
The first survey will most likely be more politically charged and may
very well evoke strong feelings by PD participants. While originally
developed for future teachers of ESL, the second survey builds on the
first and focuses on the degree to which teachers self-report skills needed
by classroom teachers to effectively teach ELs.
After participants have taken each survey, the PD facilitator can lead
them through a discussion of their responses to gain a sense of where the
educators are coming from individually in their thinking and where the
school as a whole falls on the continuum as a vehicle to advocate for ELs.
When educators are analyzing the results of survey such as this, they will
need to keep in mind that respondents are self-reporting their data. For
example, respondents may overestimate their skill level in working with
ELs on the survey. In addition, when they are sharing with a group rather
than filling out a paper form, they may be less willing to share their true
convictions regarding immigration and language policy in the United
States for fear of repercussions.
Any discussion of the Language Use survey’s results must take place
in a climate of trust, and all participants should know that they won’t be
judged for their responses. Otherwise, a sense of finger pointing could
take over and cloud the intent of the exercise. After individuals take the
survey, they can compile their scores individually and privately compare
4. Part 1: Perspectives on Language, is adapted from: Byrnes & Kiger (1994). Part 2,
Preparation for Teaching ELs, is adapted from Lucas, Reznitskaya, & Villegas, (2008).
– —— ——- —— —
.
–
– –
··
J4 • Advxating for English Le2rm~rs
them to general :iescripticm; of the scores provided below. D::::pending on
previous knowledg–~ of tlhe school climate,. the PD facilitator might
i::horn-;e to have the respondents taHy up th,~i.r score and respond to the
score in a private foumaR instead. of having a group discussion on the
topic.
fi~rE 2.2a. Language Use
Piiil~tm e;iu:iie th~ m.&ml’J~ tMt b”1it ;;1,.~tt1.lfH yoor f’lgreeerie’llt en cilstip,-eem~nt
wit[‘/ i!’\a!;h ii!at~nt [l!!IQW,
Note: Tt1e ~erm HnguistiG minority student ,rejern ro a student who speakr~ or is
expoi:.ttd to a larlQii.JS.gG rllh..a than Englisri in trm hoom; tha1 s•iude:i! :r,ay or i’r fi’/ not
be profici,mt in English.
1 ~, ~lrorcgly drSiilQ!’lie 6 = s;tr~ngly “9′”ef:l
– —– ————–~– –,-.,t To be 00t1sidered Ameri-::an, ~ persoi1 should 1 ,» 4—~5 I 6 ·12
speak Engle~ :rlw,m11y. J___-
2. I would not support tl’i(1 mdernl, state, and 1 2 6 !3 tJ•lor:,=ll gov~rnment spending ,,dditional money
I
I
to proviatia better proQm.ms for l~1guis\:k:
Iminority Gtudm1ts in public scho..,1~.
– – —·- – – – —- — – – ——- -+–+–~ ··-
3. Parents of students who ;..re r,ot profidtmt in 2 3 41 5 ~
English $hould be couns0k-;d to i:;peak
~nglish witt, llh,sir ch;!6reri whenever possibh
,.
____,,i—- – – – ~ – – ——- – – – —+——
,f4. it is not iir~rtart that people in frhe United 2 3 4 5 s’
States learn a language in addition ~o
En~i:3t:.
e-;i
;..? ~3 4 5
t~ca1ion r.:lt!ssmorn teacher 1to ·ieaeh a child
1.;vho dc~s not spo~k Ei’1glish .
5. It is unreasonable to Sl(_p,ecft a gen:m;,i 1
·- – – — — – – — – ——————i–
S. The r pid loaming of English sr1culd be a 2 3 4
priority ·Jor stucx.’fl1s who are not pmficient in
English avan if it m.tans they lose tl1e ability
to spaak tholr native l,m&JUace.
https://proQm.ms
https://larlQii.JS.gG
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 35
9. General education classroom teachers
1 2 3 4 5 6
should not be required to receive preservice
or inservice training to be prepared to meet
the needs of linguistic minority students.
10. Most K-12 students who are not proficient in 1 2 3 4 5 6
English are not motivated to learn English.
11. At school, the learning of the English 1 2 3 4 5 6
language by children who are not proficient
in English should take precedence over
learning content area subject matter.
12. English should be the official language of the 1 2 3 4 5 6
United States.
13. Students who are not proficient in English 1 2 3 4 5 6
often use unjustified claims of discrimination
as an excuse for not doing well in school.
Total score _points
Source: Adapted from Byrnes & Kiger, 1994.
Language Use Survey Score Categories
13-26 points: You feel that being American is equated with speaking Eng
lish and see the value in English being used for official purposes in the
United States. You agree that students need to learn English quickly in
order to succeed in school, and you don’t think it’s as important for those
students to maintain their first language. You think that some English
learners are not motivated enough to learn English and might be taking
advantage of their status as ELs to justify their lack of successful academic
performance in school.
27-52 points: You may not feel as strongly that being American is equated 53-78 points: You believe that it is possible to be an American even if a 36 9 Advocating for English Learners
While you believe that ELs need to learn English in order to succeed in Guiding Questions
with speaT
person does not speak English fluently. You most likely do not believe that
only English should be used for official purposes in the United States.
school, you also believe these students should also maintain and develop
their first language and also learn challenging content simultaneously
with English. You think English learners bring strengths to their schools
and are motivated to learn English.
After taking the survey, either respondents can write a journal passage
about their reactions to it, or the facilitator can use these guiding questions
to facilitate small group or full group discussions. This examination of
beliefs will help individuals and groups of educators get a better sense of
where they are coming from in terms of their openness to share the respon
sibility to teach ELs.
• How did you feel after taking the survey?
• Did certain questions surprise you? Which ones? Why?
• Do you think your final score on the Language Use survey is in
line with the description of the category you fall into? Why or
why not?
• Which areas of language use did you have the strongest reaction to?
Why?
As with the Language Use survey, after respondents take the
Preparation for Teaching ELs survey, they can compile their scores indi
vidually and compare them to general descriptions of the scores provided
below. They can then reflect upon their answers individually or discuss
them as a group. The second survey should not be as controversial as the
first, and the results of the second survey can be used to guide further PD
topics for teachers.
Language Use Survey Score Categories
13-26 points: You are aware of the challenges you face when teaching ELs
but need a great deal more information on language, culture, prior knowl
edge, and modification of instruction for ELs. You also don’t have an in
depth understanding of the interplay between language, culture,
instruction, and learning.
27-52 points: You are aware of the challenges you face when teaching ELs
and have a beginning understanding of language, culture, prior knowl
edge, and modification of instruction for ELs. You have an understanding
of the interplay between language, culture, instruction, and learning.
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 37
Figure 2.2b. Preparation for Teaching Els
Part 2. Preparation for Teaching ELs
Note: The term English learner refers to a student who is exposed to or speaks a
language other than English and is not yet fully proficient in English.
Please circle the number that best captures how well or poorly prepared you
feel in each area below.
1 = Extremely Poorly Prepared 6 = Extremely Well Prepared
1. Understanding of how people learn a
second language.
1 2 3 4 5 6
2. Understanding of the nature of academic
English and the challenges it poses for
Els.
1 2 3 4 5 6
3. Skills and strategies for learning about the
cultural backgrounds of Els.
1 2 3 4 5 6
4. Skills and strategies for teaching
academic content to English language.
1 2 3 4 5 6
5. Understanding of how culture influences
learning.
1 2 3 4 5 6
6. Understanding of how language
influences learning.
1 2 3 4 5 6
7. Understanding of language variation and
dialects.
1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Ability to assess Els’ academic abilities in
a classroom setting.
1 2 3 4 5 6
9. Understanding of the differences between
proficiency in oral language and in written
language.
1 2 3 4 5 6
10. Ability to modify classroom instruction for
ELs.
1 2 3 4 5 6
11. Ability to access Els’ prior knowledge and
experience as part of instruction.
1 2 3 4 5 6
12. Ability to link Els’ prior knowledge and
experience with new ideas and skills.
1 2 3 4 5 6
13. Skills and strategies for reaching out to
Els’ parents/guardians/family members.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Adapted from Lucas, Reznitskaya, & Villegas, 2008.
38 • Advocating for English Learners
However, you could still use some more information and strategies on
how to effectively instruct ELs.
53-78 points: You have an in-depth understanding of language, culture,
prior knowledge, and modification of instruction for ELs. You have a deep
understanding of the interplay between language, culture, instruction, and
learning. There may still be some topics on this survey that you would like
to develop further.
Guiding Questions
As with the Language Use survey, after taking the second survey,
either respondents can write a journal passage about their reactions to it,
or the facilitator can use these guiding questions to facilitate small group
or full group discussions.
• How did you feel after taking the survey in terms of your prepara
tion to teach ELs?
• Did your responses to certain questions surprise you? Which ones?
Why?
• Do you think your final score on the Preparation to Teach ELs sur
vey is in line with the description of the category you fall into? Why
or why not?
• Which areas are the strongest for you?
• Which areas would you like to develop further?
Creating an Awareness of Educators’ Own Culture
In addition to teachers examining their own beliefs around language
and instruction for ELs, it is also important for them to take a closer look at
their own cultures that they bring to their role as teachers and administra
tors. Many educators may not realize that even if they have lived in the
~. United States all their lives and are monolingual speakers of English, they
already possess a culture and worldview that influences who they are as
educators.
One suggested activity for educators to become more aware of their
own cultures is adapted from PD given by Dr. Paul Gorski, assistant pro
fessor at George Mason University and founder of EdChange (www
.edchange.org). In this activity, which can be used as an introductory activ
ity during PD, participants are asked to stand up if the statement that the
facilitator reads applies to them. This activity is designed to raise teachers’
awareness of their own memberships in cultural groups and of how these
https://edchange.org
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 39
memberships have impacted their lives and also their stance on educating
all students, including ELs. For example, some topics addressed in this
activity are socioeconomics, gender, and linguistic issues. A brief list of
sample statements is below. Others may be added as appropriate accord
ing to the makeup of the participants. While this exercise works best in a
group where others can see who is participating in which way, it can also
be a reflective exercise for individuals.
Stand up:
• If you worry about whether you’ll be able to pay your bills
• If people routinely mispronounce your name
• If you represent the first generation of your family to attend college
• If you have ever been the only person of your race/ethnicity in a
class or place of employment
• If you are often expected to work on your religious holidays
• If you never had a teacher of your racial or ethnic group
• If you have ever been teased because of the clothes you were
wearing
• If you have ever been made fun of because of the part of the country
or world you come from
• If you have ever felt pressured to change the way you speak, dress,
or act in order to fit in
• If there is any dimension of your identity that you have to hide from
most people in order to feel accepted or safe
• If there has never been a president of the United States who shared
your gender identity
• If English is not your first language
After participants have taken part in the first part of the PD activity,
they can debrief with a small group of colleagues and discuss which state
ments applied to them and which did not. They can discuss how they felt
taking part in,-the activity and which cultural groups were referenced in
the exercise. Finally, they can share how they belong to certain cultural
groups they may not have realized they had membership in and how they
can make connections between their own cultural experiences and those
of their EL students. Next, educators can discuss how their raised aware
ness of their belonging to certain cultural groups would influence their
teaching of ELs.
One United States-born monolingual participant who went through
this exercise shared that he hadn’t realized how his membership in the
first-generation college graduates in his family influenced how he viewed
40 e Advocating for English Learners
himself. He shared that he had to change how he spoke in order to fit in
better at college and often felt unprepared academically or socially because
his home culture was different from his college’s culture. He was able to
draw connections between his own experience not fitting in and how his
ELs must have felt when they had to learn a new language in order to fit
in at school both academically and socially.
An extension and application of this activity asks educators to put
themselves in their ELs’ and EL families’ shoes to determine which cul
tural groups their ELs and EL families are likely to belong to. More impor
tant, educators take this information and apply it to their own teaching.
Educators can work with a partner to envision how all their students,
including their ELs and their ELs’ families, would respond to the same
questions, keeping in mind that all students and their families would
have different responses. The educators can discuss how they can use this
information-about how their ELs and ELs’ families would respond to
the same questions-in their teaching. A representative from each small
group can then share that group’s answers with the large group of par
ticipants. A table such as the one found in Table 2.1, which has been pre
populated with sample responses to the first three “stand up” questions,
can be used to facilitate this discussion.
EL IMMERSION EXPERIENCE: STUDENT PERSPECTIVE
One potentially powerful tool to help monolingual teachers and adminis
trators experience what it’s like to be an English learner, if only on a small
scale and for a limited time, is to teach a lesson to them in a language they
do not know (Washburn, 2008). Using a “language shock” method, Wash
burn believes that teachers can be given a simulated experience of what EL
students go through that will in turn carry over into their own pedagogy.
She believes that only through the experience of being immersed and
forced to struggle with another language and culture can teachers truly
begin to empathize with EL students. In turn, this sense of empathy will
” ideally impact an educator’s sense of responsibility to teach ELs language
and culture simultaneously.
This language shock technique is in my PD toolkit and is an exercise
that I find to be particularly powerful with monolingual PD partici
pants. I happen to speak German and Spanish, but since many educa
tors have some knowledge of Spanish, I prefer to teach a sample lesson
in German and sketch out the lesson below. While reading through this
activity does not have the same effect as experiencing it in person, edu
cators can adapt the exercise to an academic topic in a language other
than English.
Table 2.1 Educator Cultural Awareness Activity SampleA.pplication to Tea.t:6ing
~ •,.· , . . ‘
‘
My EL
My My Els’ Parents’
Response: Anticipated Anticipated
7
Statement Yes or No Response Response Comments/ Application for Teaching Els
If you worry about No Yes Yes Increased awareness that some high school age Els can’t take ,.
whether you’ll be able to (depending part in afterschool activities because they have to work and/or
pay your bills on their age) that other Els may have to care for younger siblings and family
members so their parents can work; knowledge that some Els’
parents work two jobs or more and may not see their children
often and consequences of this lack of child-parent interaction
and supervision
If people routinely Yes Yes Yes Els appreciate it when teachers take the time to learn how to
mispronounce your pronounce their names; they begin to build more trust in their
name teachers when teachers make this gesture that may seem
insignificant on the surface
If you represent the first No Yes No (haven’t Many parents of Els have not attended college; even if they
generation of your family attended have attended college in their home countries, they are likely
to attend or who wi II college) not aware of the college admissions process as well as the
attend college courses, afterschool activities, and level of college admissions
test preparation U.S. students must have to present a strong
college application; teachers must present this information to
students and parents in a form they will understand in different
modes (e.g., in person, by phone, in writing)
~~~, , ,s ,· ;
•
.I:,.
42 • Advocating for English Learners
EL Empathy PD Activity Step 1
The facilitator lectures by reading the following aloud:
Wir werden heute einen Wilrfel, einen Quader, einen Kegel, einen Zylinder,
eine Pyramide und eine Kugel beschreiben und erklaren.
Ein Wiirfel ist einer der fa-nf platonischen Karper, genauer ein dreidimensio
nales Polyeder mit sechs kongruenten Quadraten als Begrenzungsfiachen,
zwalf gleichlangen Kanten und acht Ecken, in denen jeweils drei
Begrenzungsfiachen zusammentreffen.
Ein Kegel ist ein geometrischer Karper, der entsteht, wenn man alle Punkte
eines in einer Ebene liegenden, begrenzten runden Flachenstiicks geradlinig
mit einem Punkt (Spitze beziehungsweise Apex) aufierhalb der Ebene verbin
det. Das Flachenstiick nennt man Grundfiache, deren Begrenzungslinie die
Leitkurve und den Punkt die Spitze oder den Scheitel des Kegels bildet.
Ein Zylinder wird laut der allgemeinen Definition van zwei parallelen, ebenen
Flachenund einer Mantel- bzw. Zylinderfiache, die van parallelen Geraden
gebildet wird, begrenzt. Das heifit, er entsteht durch Verschiebung einer ebenen
Flache oder Kurve entlang einer Geraden, die nicht an dieser Ebene liegt.
Eine Pyramide ist ein dreidimensionaler Karper in der Geometrie. Dieses
Polyeder besteht aus mehreren nahtlos aneinanderliegenden ebenen Fliichen,
van denen eine ein Polygon und alle anderen Dreiecke sind. Die Dreiecke
bi/den die Mantelflache.
Eine Kugel hat keine Kanten und keine Ecken.
The facilitator asks these questions of participants aloud:
Wer kann diese Fragen beantworten? Zeigt bitte auf!!
• Was ist ein Wiirfel?
• Wie nennt man das Fliichenstiick eines Kegels?
• Wer kann eienen Zylinder beschreiben?
• Wieviele Dimensionen hat eine Pyramide?
• Wieviele Kanten und Ecken hat eine Kugel?
When none of the participants answers the questions (unless there hap
pens to be someone with knowledge of German), the facilitator begins to start
speaking louder and more slowly. The facilitator begins showing frustration
with the students’ lack of answers and changes the tone of voice and body
language to show students that they are not meeting expectations. If someone
attempts to answer in English, the facilitator does not allow that answer.
When I am facilitating, I also don’t allow participants to talk to each other.
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 43
Guiding Questions
I continue this way for about 5 to 10 agonizing minutes and then allow
the teachers a chance to debrief (in English) in small groups about their
experience, providing them guiding questions such as these:
1. How did it feel to be a German as a Second Language student?
2. What kind of extra help did you need to understand the lesson?
3. What did you do to try to understand the content?
4. How did the facilitator adapt instruction to meet your linguistic
needs?
5. Do you have or have you had any students who might have been in
a situation similar to the one you were just in?
Once they have debriefed about Step 1 in small groups, several groups
share their experiences with the large group.
EL Empathy Professional Development Activity Step 2
The facilitator then adds the additional scaffold of visual and written
information to help slightly lighten the linguistic load for the participants
to allow them to demonstrate, in a language that is unfamiliar to them, the
academic content they presumably already know. Participants are also
allowed to work together and use English to solve the problems. Some
samples of the visuals and written information provided for this German
lesson are the following:
Du findest hier einen Wurfel, einen Quader, einen Kegel, einen Zylinder, eine
Pyramide, und eine Kugel. Schreibe den richtigen Namen unter die
entsprechende Darstellung!
Versuche3nschlieflend zu entscheiden, ob die angefahrten Aussagen wahr (w)
oder falsch (f) sind. Kreuze Entsprechendes an!
• Wie heiBen diese korper?
@dDe08@
44 • Advocating for English Learners
f
Der Wi.irfel hat 10 Ecken
Die Kugel hat keine Kanten und keine Ecken .
, ..
Aussage w
. ,;1lf’ -·-“‘·’Iii,’ = =
Guiding Questions
The participants then debrief with a partner or in a small group, using
the following sample guiding questions:
1. How did it feel to be a German as a Second Language student in
Step 2 as compared to Step 1?
2. What were you being asked to do in this exercise? How do you
know?
3. What skills do you possess that allowed you to understand some of
the content?
4. What kind of extra help did you receive to meet your linguistic
needs in order to understand the lesson?
5. What kind of help would you still need to understand the lesson
and take part in the informal assessment?
At this point, participants tend to feel slightly more at ease due to
the facilitator’s use of some preliminary language supports. They will
also have previous knowledge of the content, they will recognize some
German/English cognates such as Pyramide/pyramid, and they will
know how to respond to fill-in-the-blank and true/false questions.
Because of this background knowledge, most of the educators would
ascertain that they were being asked to match the name of the geometric
figure to the visual. They should be able to point out that the written
and verbal information provided helped them to at least figure out what
-they were supposed to do, even if they weren’t exactly sure of the lan
guage of the tasks and could not fully access the meaning of the content.
Some participants will also express that they were relieved that they
could work with a partner and/ or discuss the problem in English.
EL Empathy Professional Development Activity Step 3
Finally, the facilitator provides the participants the additional scaffold of
a written bilingual glossary to help them complete the task given in Step 2.
They can still work in pairs or small groups and use English to figure out the
answers together.
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 45
GLOSSARY
Wurfel-cube Darstellung-figure
Quader-cuboid wahr-true
Kegel-cone falsch-false
Zylinder-cylinder Ecken–corners
Pyramide-pyramid Keine-no
Kugel-sphere Kanten-edges
They are then given the correct answers below.
• Wie heiBen diese korper?
@~@Ll8@
‘.;
Quader Pyramide Kugel Zylinder Kegel Wurfel
Aussage w f
Der Wurfel hat 10 Ecken ✓
Die Kugel hat keine Kanten und keine Ecken. ✓
,.
·-:· ,,,…. ,…… ~.–: ,.~ ~~ . .. ., ….. ,. , · .. …. • J”!-. —- –~ •. .
t;:
i
{
,.
•
b
Guiding Questions
At the end of this activity, participants debrief about the overall experi
ence in small groups using guiding questions:
1. How did your feelings about taking part in the lesson change as we
progressed from Step 1 to Step 3?
2. Which modifications to the lesson helped you? Why?
3. What happened to your level of anxiety as the lesson progressed?
Why?
4. Do you think these modifications would work for all ELs? Why or
why not?
5. What did the facilitator do that helped or hindered your learning?
6. What has changed about your knowledge of working with ELs?
46 • Advocating for English Learners
7. What can you apply from this experience to your own teaching
of ELs?
At the conclusion of this activity, participants come away with an
increased sense of what it is like to be an EL. They also realize this short
experience is just a small window into an EL’s world. ELs at low levels of
English proficiency encounter situations like these all day, every day in
school as they acquire English proficiency. Through Step 1 of this activity,
the facilitator modeled what not to do in teaching ELs challenging content.
The teacher in Step 1 did not feel it was his or her responsibility to teach
language and content simultaneously; instead, the teacher focused only on
content.
The participants also become aware that they are already at a large
advantage over some ELs, since they most likely already have learned the
geometry content in their dominant language, English, and they can trans
fer this knowledge of the content to the lesson in German. They also
already know how to participate in a classroom environment and under
stand the facilitator’s questioning format, knowing that they are expected
to raise their hands to answer. The bilingual glossary is beneficial to them
because they are already literate in English and also know the geometry
content in English.
EL FAMILY EMPATHY BUILDING EXPERIENCE
Building a sense of shared responsibility to educate ELs also extends to
the need for all educators to be inclusive of ELs’ families and to be willing
to serve as their advocates. I am a United States-born, native English
speaking parent of school-age children, and I have classroom teaching and
administrative experience in the same public school district in which my
children are in school. Even so, I sometimes find myself unsure about my
children’s classroom and school and about district policies and expecta-
~. tions. I subsequently contact my children’s teachers or administrators via
phone or by e-mail with questions. I can advocate for my own children’s
education in a Spanish immersion public school program due to my knowl
edge of the following factors:
1. How the public school system “works” from my experience as a
teacher and administrator in the district
2. My understanding of my expected place in the district’s school sys
tem as a parent
Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners • 47
3. My understanding of the teachers’ and school’s expectations for how
I should interact and communicate with teachers and administrators
4. My ability to communicate fluently in English-and occasionally
drop an education jargon term-within the expectations for K-12
school discourse
I often try to put myself in the shoes of ELs’ families as best I can as
they try to comprehend the expectations and policies of their children’s
classrooms, schools, districts, and states, not to mention federal require
ments of EL education and accountability that do not apply to me or my
own children. EL families will likely not have the same four strengths to
draw upon as I do. They may not know of the opportunities that are avail
able to them or their children that could potentially be hugely beneficial to
them in the immediate future and for the duration of their academic
careers (such as afterschool tutoring, extracurricular activities, or SAT
preparation for college). Educators must share the responsibility to sup
port ELs’ families so that they can learn to navigate the policies, expecta
tions, and opportunities for their children in their school. In order to help
EL families in this way, educators must first get a taste of what it’s like to
be an EL parent to begin to get a sense of which areas require their support.
EL Parent Empathy Professional Development Suggestion
One way to help educators construct a more comprehensive view of
what it’s like to be an EL family member is through having them fill out
forms in a language that they do not speak or read. A form that seems
innocuous for the majority of United States-born parents may present a
more nuanced, complex situation for families of ELs. The activity below
helps provide experiential learning to educators about what it is like to fill
out one such simple form for two different parents of ELs. Both EL parents
speak the same language, but their prior experiences are worlds apart.
There are many school forms translated into languages other than
English available for download online, and many districts have also
often translated parental forms into the top language group(s) spoken
by EL families. The form I have chosen for the PD activity that follows
is a sample free and reduced-price lunch form that has been created for
the U.S. Department of Agriculture for school districts to modify and
download (Figure 2.3).
For purposes of this activity, teachers assume one of two identities
(Ahmed or Mojtaba), which they use to complete the form individually.
They know only that the form is required by the school.
48 • Advocating for English Learners
The first identity:
You are Ahmed, a 45-year-old mechanical engineer from Dubai who has
moved to the United States for two years on a work visa to provide special
ized support to an international company. You have two children enrolled
in your district’s school system. You speak and read English at an inter
mediate level, and this is your children’s second year in U.S. schools.
The second identity:
You are Mojtaba, a 30-year-old refugee from Darfur, Sudan. You have four
children enrolled in U.S. schools and have two toddlers at home. You
attended school through the third grade in Sudan and arrived in the
United States two weeks ago. You don’t speak or read English, and you
are able to read Arabic at the first grade level.
Guiding Questions
After the participants have attempted to fill out the form through the
eyes of Ahmed or Mojtaba, all the participants who filled out the form as
Ahmed work as a small group to discuss their experience using the sample
guiding questions below. All the participants who filled out the form as
Mojtaba would also discuss their questions together. If participants take
part in this exercise individually, they can still choose one of the identities
and reflect on the guiding questions:
• What do you think this form is used for? Why do you think so?
• How much do you think Ahmed/Mojtaba will understand what is
written here? Why?
• What do you think Ahmed/Mojtaba could perceive as unintended
consequences for filling out this form incorrectly?
• What other life circumstances could affect how Ahmed/Mojtaba
would complete this form?
• What information do you take away from this experience as an edu
cator that you can apply to your own classroom or school context
when working with families of ELs?
Once both groups have debriefed under the guise of their assumed
identities, educators can compare the two groups’ responses to the guiding
questions as a large group; then the facilitator can inform them that the
form is a free and reduced-price lunch form. As U.S. educators most likely
are aware, all families of U.S. students have to fill out such a form if their
child is to qualify to receive a free or reduced-price lunch. The information
the family provides is based on self-reported income.
Figure 2.3. Free and Reduced-Price Lunch Form in Arabic
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~ • http://www.fns.usda.gov https://ii….,_;.Jo 52 • Advocating for English Learners
However, the seemingly simple act of completing this form can be more How Ahmed’s and Mojtaba’s Experiences Impact Them
Ahmed and Mojtaba bring vastly different sets of experiences to the The experience of Mojtaba, who also speaks Arabic, will be markedly some very basic information in Arabic. For example, she may not be ab:c the U.S. school system, she might be unaware that lunch is provided at he: much personal information to school authorities, fearing that her refuge-;: Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners Cl 53
status may be revoked at any moment. Due to all the potential roadblocks In order for educators to serve as advocates for the English learners in Has your definition of sharedtainties families of ELs experience as they learn more about the U.S. school system. after reading this chapter? If so, in what Byrnes, D. A., & Kiger, G. (1994). Language attitudes of teachers scales (LATS). English, B. (2009). Who is responsible for educating English language learners? Honigsfeld, A., & Dove, M. (2010). Collaboration and co-teaching: Strategies for Eng Lewis-Moreno, B. (2007). Shared responsibility: Achieving success with English Lucas, T., Reznitskaya, A., & Villegas, AM. (2008, April). Exploring the attitudes 54 • Advocating for English Learners
Presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Reeves, J. (2006). Secondary teacher attitudes toward including English-language Staehr Fenner, D., & Kuhlman, N. (2012). Preparing effective teachers of English lan Washburn, G. (2008). Alone, confused, and frustrated: Developing empathy and Wassell, B.A., Hawrylak, M. F., & La Van, S. (2010). Examining the structures that Table 2.1 Educator Cultural Awareness Activity SampleA.pplication to Tea.t:6ing Figure 2.3. Free and Reduced-Price Lunch Form in Arabic -‘la-! ~YI uts..ll L>-” o t.>-“:!!1 D ~y 1.,l __,.;4,-,1 .J#- D
Source: http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/frp / frp.process.hhn . • http://www.fns.usda.gov https://ii….,_;.Jo 52 • Advocating for English Learners However, the seemingly simple act of completing this form can be more How Ahmed’s and Mojtaba’s Experiences Impact Them Ahmed and Mojtaba bring vastly different sets of experiences to the The experience of Mojtaba, who also speaks Arabic, will be markedly some very basic information in Arabic. For example, she may not be ab:c the U.S. school system, she might be unaware that lunch is provided at he: much personal information to school authorities, fearing that her refuge-;: Creating a Shared Sense of Responsibility for Teaching English Learners Cl 53 status may be revoked at any moment. Due to all the potential roadblocks In order for educators to serve as advocates for the English learners in Has your definition of sharedtainties families of ELs experience as they learn more about the U.S. school system. after reading this chapter? If so, in what Byrnes, D. A., & Kiger, G. (1994). Language attitudes of teachers scales (LATS). English, B. (2009). Who is responsible for educating English language learners? Honigsfeld, A., & Dove, M. (2010). Collaboration and co-teaching: Strategies for Eng Lewis-Moreno, B. (2007). Shared responsibility: Achieving success with English Lucas, T., Reznitskaya, A., & Villegas, AM. (2008, April). Exploring the attitudes 54 • Advocating for English Learners Presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Reeves, J. (2006). Secondary teacher attitudes toward including English-language Staehr Fenner, D., & Kuhlman, N. (2012). Preparing effective teachers of English lan Washburn, G. (2008). Alone, confused, and frustrated: Developing empathy and Wassell, B.A., Hawrylak, M. F., & La Van, S. (2010). Examining the structures that Structure Bookmarks Table 2.1 Educator Cultural Awareness Activity SampleA.pplication to Tea.t:6ing Figure 2.3. Free and Reduced-Price Lunch Form in Arabic
V,
high stakes for families of ELs, even if the form has been translated into
their native language. For example, parents of ELs who understand the
content of the form can be embarrassed that their child qualifies to receive
a free or reduced-price lunch and might not fill in this information correctly
or at all, ultimately spending family funds that may already be tight. Other
families who lack immigration documentation may not wish to fill out the
form because they do not know what the information will be used for, even
if they have reassurance from the school that it will be used only to deter
mine if their child can qualify for a free or reduced-price lunch.
task of completing a form, and each of them will require varying amounts
of support from their school’s personnel to assist them with this procedure.
Ahmed, a college educated mechanical engineer, already possesses literacy
in Arabic and will most likely not experience difficulties completing the
form, assuming it is an accurate translation into the dialect of Arabic he
speaks. Since he is a career professional, his income will probably preclude
his children from receiving free or reduced-price lunch at their school. In
addition, if he has any questions about this form, his level of English profi
ciency and familiarity with schooling in general as well as one year oi
experience with his children’s school in the United States will be an asset tc
him if he decides to contact the school for more information. Ahmed wih
therefore require much less assistance from school personnel in order tc
complete this form.
different from that of Ahmed. Mojtaba legally resides in the United States
but is most likely functionally illiterate in Arabic. She would first an~
foremost experience difficulty understanding the content of the fonr.
since she can barely read Arabic. Thus, despite the school’s good inten
tions of giving her a form in her native language, she most likely will nc:
understand its content. Mojtaba would require someone to speak with he:
in Arabic about the purpose and content of the form and to work with he:
to complete it, since she can most likely not write more than her name 0:
to write her new address or phone number (if she has a phone). Since sl-.::
has not received schooling beyond the first grade and is not familiar w i::
children’s school. Furthermore, she may be fearful about providing to,:
for her in completing this form, it is unlikely that she will complete it
without help. If she does not complete the form, she will forfeit her chil
dren’s access to free or reduced-price lunch, increasing the economic
burden on her family. She won’t be able to contact the school with ques
tions about the form if the school does not have an Arabic-speaking per
son on staff to assist her. Even though the school has made the laudable
effort to provide the form in her native language, Mojtaba still requires
concerted advocacy efforts from school personnel in order for this form to
be meaningful to her and for her to complete it.
their classrooms and in their schools, they must first become open to the
notion that everyone in the school is responsible for the success of its ELs.
Since educators’ own cultures, experiences, and education influence their
beliefs about language practices and policies as well as their classroom
and societal expectations of ELs, they must first examine their personal
beliefs about students who are acquiring English. Because most educators
haven’t had experiences of being schooled in another language and have
not had to adjust to life in a different culture, it is also important to offer
educators a glimpse into the challenges
ELs face in the classroom as well as uncer
responsibility to educate Els changed
Chapter 3 focuses on EL advocacy through ways?
the ESL teacher perspective.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(1), 227-231.
Discursive construction of roles and responsibilities in an inquiry community.
College and Education 23(6), 487-507. doi:10.1080/09500780902954216
lish learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
language learners. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(10), 772-775.
and preparedness of regular classroom teachers to teach English language learners.
Association, New York, NY.
learners in mainstream classrooms. Journal of Educational Research, 99(3), 131-142.
guage learners: Practical applications for the TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching
Standards. Alexandria, VA: TESOL International Association.
strategies for working with English language learners. The Clearing House,
81(6), 247-250.
impact English language learners’ agency in urban high schools: Resources
and roadblocks in the classroom. Education and Urban Society, 42(5), 599-619.
doi:10.1177 /0013124510375598
V,
high stakes for families of ELs, even if the form has been translated into
their native language. For example, parents of ELs who understand the
content of the form can be embarrassed that their child qualifies to receive
a free or reduced-price lunch and might not fill in this information correctly
or at all, ultimately spending family funds that may already be tight. Other
families who lack immigration documentation may not wish to fill out the
form because they do not know what the information will be used for, even
if they have reassurance from the school that it will be used only to deter
mine if their child can qualify for a free or reduced-price lunch.
task of completing a form, and each of them will require varying amounts
of support from their school’s personnel to assist them with this procedure.
Ahmed, a college educated mechanical engineer, already possesses literacy
in Arabic and will most likely not experience difficulties completing the
form, assuming it is an accurate translation into the dialect of Arabic he
speaks. Since he is a career professional, his income will probably preclude
his children from receiving free or reduced-price lunch at their school. In
addition, if he has any questions about this form, his level of English profi
ciency and familiarity with schooling in general as well as one year oi
experience with his children’s school in the United States will be an asset tc
him if he decides to contact the school for more information. Ahmed wih
therefore require much less assistance from school personnel in order tc
complete this form.
different from that of Ahmed. Mojtaba legally resides in the United States
but is most likely functionally illiterate in Arabic. She would first an~
foremost experience difficulty understanding the content of the fonr.
since she can barely read Arabic. Thus, despite the school’s good inten
tions of giving her a form in her native language, she most likely will nc:
understand its content. Mojtaba would require someone to speak with he:
in Arabic about the purpose and content of the form and to work with he:
to complete it, since she can most likely not write more than her name 0:
to write her new address or phone number (if she has a phone). Since sl-.::
has not received schooling beyond the first grade and is not familiar w i::
children’s school. Furthermore, she may be fearful about providing to,:
for her in completing this form, it is unlikely that she will complete it
without help. If she does not complete the form, she will forfeit her chil
dren’s access to free or reduced-price lunch, increasing the economic
burden on her family. She won’t be able to contact the school with ques
tions about the form if the school does not have an Arabic-speaking per
son on staff to assist her. Even though the school has made the laudable
effort to provide the form in her native language, Mojtaba still requires
concerted advocacy efforts from school personnel in order for this form to
be meaningful to her and for her to complete it.
their classrooms and in their schools, they must first become open to the
notion that everyone in the school is responsible for the success of its ELs.
Since educators’ own cultures, experiences, and education influence their
beliefs about language practices and policies as well as their classroom
and societal expectations of ELs, they must first examine their personal
beliefs about students who are acquiring English. Because most educators
haven’t had experiences of being schooled in another language and have
not had to adjust to life in a different culture, it is also important to offer
educators a glimpse into the challenges
ELs face in the classroom as well as uncer
responsibility to educate Els changed
Chapter 3 focuses on EL advocacy through ways?
the ESL teacher perspective.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(1), 227-231.
Discursive construction of roles and responsibilities in an inquiry community.
College and Education 23(6), 487-507. doi:10.1080/09500780902954216
lish learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
language learners. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(10), 772-775.
and preparedness of regular classroom teachers to teach English language learners.
Association, New York, NY.
learners in mainstream classrooms. Journal of Educational Research, 99(3), 131-142.
guage learners: Practical applications for the TESOL P-12 Professional Teaching
Standards. Alexandria, VA: TESOL International Association.
strategies for working with English language learners. The Clearing House,
81(6), 247-250.
impact English language learners’ agency in urban high schools: Resources
and roadblocks in the classroom. Education and Urban Society, 42(5), 599-619.
doi:10.1177 /0013124510375598
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